Journal

### Elevate Your Style with Westyleoutfit.com: Your Ultimate Destination for Fashion and Jewelry

In the ever-evolving world of fashion, staying ahead of trends and finding unique pieces that resonate with your personal style can be a daunting task. Fortunately, Westyleoutfit.com has emerged as a premier online destination, offering an extensive collection of fashion and jewelry that caters to diverse tastes and occasions. Whether you’re seeking to update your wardrobe, find that perfect accessory, or explore the latest trends, Westyleoutfit.com has something for everyone. Here’s why you should make this site your go-to for all things fashion and jewelry.

#### A Diverse Range of Fashion Collections

At Westyleoutfit.com, diversity is the hallmark of their fashion offerings. The site features a wide array of clothing options, from casual wear to formal attire, ensuring you find the perfect outfit for any occasion. Whether you are looking for chic dresses, stylish tops, comfortable loungewear, or sophisticated business attire, Westyleoutfit.com has curated collections that cater to every need. Each piece is selected with an eye for quality, design, and current fashion trends, ensuring you look your best no matter the occasion.

#### Trendsetting Jewelry to Complement Every Outfit

No outfit is complete without the perfect accessory, and Westyleoutfit.com excels in providing a stunning selection of jewelry. From delicate necklaces and statement earrings to elegant bracelets and timeless rings, the jewelry collection is designed to complement and enhance your wardrobe. Each piece reflects the latest in fashion trends while maintaining a timeless appeal, allowing you to make a statement and express your unique style.

#### Quality and Craftsmanship You Can Trust

Quality is a key focus at Westyleoutfit.com. The site collaborates with reputable designers and brands known for their craftsmanship and attention to detail. This commitment to quality ensures that every item you purchase not only looks fantastic but also stands the test of time. Whether it’s the fine stitching on a dress or the intricate detailing on a piece of jewelry, you can trust that your purchase from Westyleoutfit.com will be of the highest standard.

#### Affordable Luxury

While Westyleoutfit.com offers luxury fashion and jewelry, it also prides itself on affordability. The site believes that everyone should have access to high-quality fashion without breaking the bank. With a range of price points and frequent promotions, Westyleoutfit.com makes it possible to indulge in stylish clothing and accessories that fit your budget. Their user-friendly website often features sales and discounts, making it easier than ever to find a great deal on your favorite items.

#### Staying Ahead of Trends

Fashion is all about evolution, and Westyleoutfit.com ensures you stay ahead of the curve. The site regularly updates its collections to reflect the latest trends in the fashion industry. By keeping a pulse on global fashion trends, Westyleoutfit.com offers pieces that are contemporary, stylish, and fresh. Whether it’s seasonal trends, celebrity-inspired looks, or runway styles, you can count on Westyleoutfit.com to keep your wardrobe current and trendy.

#### A Personalized Shopping Experience

Shopping at Westyleoutfit.com is not just about purchasing clothes and jewelry; it’s about experiencing fashion in a personalized way. The site offers a seamless and enjoyable shopping experience with easy navigation, detailed product descriptions, and high-quality images that help you make informed choices. Additionally, the customer service team is always ready to assist you, ensuring your shopping experience is smooth and satisfactory.

#### Sustainable Fashion Choices

Westyleoutfit.com is also committed to promoting sustainable fashion. The site features a selection of eco-friendly and ethically sourced products, allowing you to make fashion choices that are kind to the environment. By choosing these products, you can look good while also feeling good about your contribution to sustainable fashion practices.

### Conclusion

Westyleoutfit.com stands out as a premier online destination for fashion and jewelry, offering a diverse range of high-quality products that cater to every style and occasion. With its commitment to quality, affordability, trendsetting collections, and personalized shopping experience, Westyleoutfit.com is the perfect place to elevate your style. Whether you’re updating your wardrobe, searching for the perfect accessory, or looking for the latest trends, Westyleoutfit.com has everything you need to express your unique style and make a fashion statement. Visit Westyleoutfit.com today and discover a world of fashion possibilities.

### Article 1: The Ultimate Guide to Fashion Jewelry Trends in 2024

Fashion jewelry has always been an exciting way to express personal style. As we step into 2024, new trends are emerging that redefine elegance and flair. Let's dive into the hottest fashion jewelry trends this year that you can find at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### Bold and Chunky Pieces
Chunky necklaces and oversized earrings are making a comeback. These statement pieces are perfect for adding a bold touch to any outfit. Whether it’s a chunky gold chain or a pair of oversized hoops, these items are all about making a statement.

#### Layering and Stacking
Layered necklaces and stacked bracelets are continuing to dominate the fashion scene. This trend allows for a personalized and eclectic look. Mix and match different lengths, textures, and styles to create a unique ensemble. Visit [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com) for a variety of layering options.

#### Sustainable Jewelry
With growing awareness about sustainability, eco-friendly fashion jewelry is on the rise. Pieces made from recycled materials or ethically sourced stones are not only stylish but also conscientious choices. [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com) offers a range of sustainable options that don’t compromise on style.

#### Colorful Beads
Bright, colorful beads are a playful addition to any jewelry collection. From vibrant necklaces to multicolored bracelets, these pieces add a pop of color and fun. Check out [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com) for the latest in beaded jewelry.

#### Personalized Pieces
Personalization continues to be a significant trend. Initial necklaces, name bracelets, and custom engravings are all the rage. They make for great gifts or special treats for yourself. Browse personalized options at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

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### Article 2: How to Style Fashion Jewelry for Every Occasion

Fashion jewelry can transform any outfit from ordinary to extraordinary. Here’s how you can style your favorite pieces for different occasions using beautiful items from [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### Casual Outings
For a casual day out, keep it simple yet stylish with delicate necklaces and stud earrings. A dainty pendant or a pair of minimalistic hoops can add a touch of elegance without overwhelming your look. Explore casual options at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### Office Wear
In a professional setting, opt for sophisticated and understated pieces. Pearl earrings, thin bangles, and sleek rings are perfect choices. They complement your office attire without drawing too much attention. Find office-appropriate jewelry at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### Date Night
Make a statement on your date night with bold and romantic pieces. Think chandelier earrings, layered necklaces, and statement rings. These pieces can enhance your outfit and add a touch of glamour. [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com) has a variety of romantic jewelry to choose from.

#### Special Events
For weddings, parties, and other special events, go all out with glamorous jewelry. Opt for sparkling gemstones, intricate designs, and eye-catching pieces that stand out. Browse the special events collection at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com) for show-stopping jewelry.

#### Weekend Brunch
For a relaxed brunch with friends, choose fun and trendy pieces like beaded bracelets, charm necklaces, and layered anklets. These pieces are perfect for creating a casual yet chic look. Check out trendy brunch jewelry at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

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### Article 3: The History and Evolution of Fashion Jewelry

Fashion jewelry has a rich history that dates back to ancient civilizations. Over the centuries, it has evolved significantly, reflecting changes in society, culture, and fashion. Discover this fascinating journey and explore contemporary pieces at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### Ancient Times
In ancient Egypt, jewelry was a symbol of wealth and power. Pieces were often made from gold and adorned with precious stones. Similarly, in ancient Rome, jewelry was used to indicate social status. Today, many fashion jewelry designs are inspired by these ancient styles. Explore modern takes on ancient designs at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### Renaissance and Baroque Periods
During the Renaissance, jewelry became more elaborate and detailed, often featuring intricate metalwork and gemstones. The Baroque period introduced even more opulence with large, ornate pieces. Find pieces that capture this historical grandeur at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### 20th Century
The 20th century saw significant changes in fashion jewelry. The Art Deco movement introduced geometric shapes and bold designs, while the 1960s brought about a more playful and colorful approach. Today’s fashion jewelry often blends these historical styles with modern twists. Check out these eclectic designs at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### Modern Era
In the 21st century, fashion jewelry is more diverse than ever. With a focus on sustainability, personalization, and innovation, modern pieces cater to a wide range of tastes and preferences. Explore the latest trends at [Westyleoutfit.com](http://Westyleoutfit.com).

#### Future Trends
As technology advances, the future of fashion jewelry looks exciting. From 3D-printed designs to smart jewelry, the possibilities are endless. Stay ahead of the curve with futuristic pieces from [Westyleoutfit.com]

### Taylor Swift: A Journey Through Music and Influence

Taylor Swift is not just a global superstar; she is a cultural icon whose journey through music has captivated audiences worldwide. From her beginnings as a country music prodigy to her evolution into a pop sensation and influential songwriter, Swift's career is a testament to talent, resilience, and creative evolution. This exploration delves into her early life, musical career, impact on the industry, and cultural influence.

#### Early Life and Musical Beginnings

Taylor Alison Swift was born on December 13, 1989, in Reading, Pennsylvania, USA. Raised on a Christmas tree farm, Swift developed an early interest in music, learning to play guitar and performing at local events. Her family's support and encouragement paved the way for her to pursue a career in country music.

Swift's big break came when she was just 14 years old, signing a music publishing deal with Sony/ATV, which led her to Nashville, Tennessee, the heart of country music. There, she began co-writing songs and honing her craft as a songwriter. Her perseverance paid off when she signed with Big Machine Records and released her self-titled debut album in 2006. The album's success catapulted her onto the country music scene, earning her recognition as a talented singer-songwriter with a knack for storytelling.

#### Rise to Stardom: Country Music Sensation

Taylor Swift's self-titled debut album, released in 2006, introduced her as a fresh face in country music. The album spawned hit singles such as "Tim McGraw," "Teardrops on My Guitar," and "Our Song," showcasing her ability to blend country storytelling with catchy melodies. Swift's youthful exuberance and relatable lyrics resonated with audiences, particularly young fans who saw her as a role model.

Her second album, "Fearless," released in 2008, marked a pivotal moment in Swift's career. It became the best-selling album of 2009 in the United States and won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. The album's crossover success cemented Swift's status as a superstar, blending country-pop influences while maintaining her authenticity as a songwriter. Hit singles like "Love Story" and "You Belong with Me" topped charts worldwide, showcasing Swift's ability to connect with listeners on a global scale.

#### Evolution into Pop Stardom

With each subsequent album, Taylor Swift continued to evolve artistically, embracing new musical styles and themes while staying true to her roots as a storyteller. Her transition from country to pop began with the release of "Red" in 2012, which featured a blend of genres and signaled Swift's exploration beyond traditional country music boundaries. Songs like "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" and "I Knew You Were Trouble" showcased her versatility and appeal to a broader audience.

In 2014, Swift released "1989," a pop masterpiece that solidified her place as a global pop sensation. Inspired by the synth-pop sounds of the 1980s, the album marked a departure from her country roots and embraced a more polished, pop-oriented sound. "Shake It Off," "Blank Space," and "Bad Blood" became chart-topping hits, with "1989" winning the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. Swift's reinvention as a pop star was complete, demonstrating her ability to adapt to changing musical landscapes while maintaining her distinctive voice as a songwriter.

#### Songwriting and Artistic Vision

Central to Taylor Swift's enduring appeal is her gift for songwriting and storytelling. From the autobiographical lyrics of her early country hits to the introspective narratives of her pop anthems, Swift's songs resonate with authenticity and emotional depth. She has a unique ability to capture universal experiences and emotions, whether it's love and heartbreak, empowerment, or personal growth.

Swift's songwriting prowess has earned her numerous accolades, including multiple Grammy Awards for Song of the Year and Album of the Year. Her ability to write relatable songs that resonate with listeners of all ages has solidified her reputation as one of the most influential songwriters of her generation. Swift often draws inspiration from her own life experiences, weaving personal anecdotes into her music that fans eagerly dissect and analyze.

#### Influence and Impact

Beyond her musical achievements, Taylor Swift has wielded significant influence in the entertainment industry and popular culture. She has leveraged her platform to advocate for causes close to her heart, including gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and political activism. Swift's willingness to speak out on social issues has earned her praise for using her voice to effect positive change and empower her fans.

As a cultural icon, Swift's influence extends beyond music into fashion, media, and entertainment. Her style evolution—from country chic to sophisticated glamour—has inspired fashion trends and garnered attention from the fashion industry. Swift's music videos, known for their cinematic storytelling and elaborate production, have set standards for visual aesthetics and storytelling in the music industry.

#### Legacy and Future Endeavors

Looking ahead, Taylor Swift continues to innovate and inspire with each new phase of her career. Her ability to reinvent herself while staying true to her artistic vision ensures that she remains relevant in an ever-changing music industry. Swift's influence on future generations of artists and fans is undeniable, as she continues to set trends, break records, and redefine what it means to be a global superstar.

In conclusion, Taylor Swift's journey from a teenage country sensation to a pop icon is a testament to her talent, resilience, and dedication to her craft. Through her music, Swift has touched the hearts of millions, resonating with listeners through her honest storytelling and emotional authenticity. As she continues to evolve as an artist and advocate, Taylor Swift's legacy as a cultural powerhouse and musical trailblazer is secure, leaving an indelible mark on the world of music and beyond.

### Exploring the History of Cottagecore Dress: A Nostalgic Journey into Romanticism and Rural Aesthetics

Cottagecore dress, a fashion trend that romanticizes rural life and pastoral settings, has gained significant popularity in recent years. Rooted in nostalgia for simplicity, nature, and the charm of countryside living, cottagecore dress draws inspiration from historical and literary sources, creating a style that celebrates femininity, comfort, and a connection to the natural world.

#### Origins and Influences

1. **Romanticism and Victorian Era**: Cottagecore dress finds its roots in the Romantic movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries, which idealized rural life as a return to nature and simplicity. Artists and writers of the Romantic era, such as John Constable and William Wordsworth, depicted idyllic countryside scenes that inspired a longing for pastoral tranquility.

2. **Arts and Crafts Movement**: Emerging in the late 19th century, the Arts and Crafts movement promoted craftsmanship, simplicity, and a return to nature in response to industrialization. This movement influenced cottagecore aesthetics by emphasizing handmade goods, natural materials, and a rejection of mass-produced items.

3. **Victorian and Edwardian Era Fashion**: The fashion of the Victorian and Edwardian eras also plays a role in cottagecore dress. Women's clothing during these periods often featured long skirts, puffed sleeves, high necklines, and intricate lace details, reflecting a romanticized ideal of femininity and modesty.

#### Key Elements of Cottagecore Dress

1. **Silhouettes**: Cottagecore dress typically features flowing and loose-fitting silhouettes that prioritize comfort and freedom of movement. Dresses are often ankle-length or midi-length, with empire waists or smocked bodices for a romantic and whimsical look.

2. **Fabrics**: Natural fabrics such as cotton, linen, and wool are favored in cottagecore dress, echoing a preference for sustainable and eco-friendly materials. These fabrics are breathable and comfortable, suitable for both indoor and outdoor settings.

3. **Details and Embellishments**: Delicate details such as ruffles, lace trims, embroidery, and floral patterns are characteristic of cottagecore dress. These elements add a nostalgic and feminine touch, evoking a sense of vintage charm and rural elegance.

4. **Color Palette**: Soft, earthy tones dominate the color palette of cottagecore dress, including shades of cream, pastel pinks, soft blues, sage greens, and floral prints. These colors reflect the natural beauty of the countryside and evoke a sense of tranquility and harmony with nature.

#### Modern Revival and Popularity

1. **Social Media and Cultural Influence**: The resurgence of cottagecore dress in recent years can be attributed in part to social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok, where users share images and videos of rural-inspired aesthetics. The trend has captivated a generation seeking an escape from urban hustle and bustle, embracing a slower pace of life and a connection to nature.

2. **Fashion Designers and Influencers**: Fashion designers and influencers have also embraced cottagecore aesthetics, incorporating elements of nostalgia and rural charm into their collections. This mainstream acceptance has further propelled the popularity of cottagecore dress, making it accessible to a wider audience.

3. **Impact on Lifestyle and Consumer Behavior**: Beyond fashion, cottagecore dress has influenced lifestyle choices and consumer behavior, promoting sustainability, self-sufficiency, and a return to handmade and artisanal goods. It represents a desire for authenticity and simplicity in a fast-paced and digital world.

#### Cultural Significance and Future Trends

1. **Escapism and Nostalgia**: Cottagecore dress offers a form of escapism, allowing individuals to imagine a simpler and more idyllic way of life. It taps into a longing for the past and a romanticized vision of rural living that resonates with modern sensibilities.

2. **Sustainability and Ethical Fashion**: As consumers become more conscious of environmental impact, cottagecore dress aligns with principles of sustainability and ethical fashion. The emphasis on natural fabrics, handmade craftsmanship, and timeless design reflects a desire for conscientious consumption.

3. **Future Directions**: Looking ahead, cottagecore dress is likely to continue evolving, adapting to changing cultural and fashion trends while retaining its core elements of nostalgia, romance, and rural aesthetics. Its enduring appeal lies in its ability to evoke emotions and inspire a connection to nature and heritage.

In conclusion, cottagecore dress represents more than just a fashion trend; it embodies a cultural movement rooted in nostalgia, simplicity, and a reverence for nature. Inspired by historical and literary influences, this romantic style celebrates femininity, comfort, and a timeless connection to the countryside. As it continues to evolve and influence contemporary fashion, cottagecore dress invites individuals to embrace a lifestyle that values authenticity, craftsmanship, and a deeper appreciation for the natural world.

To speak like a character from "Bridgerton," a Regency-era drama with a blend of historical accuracy and modern sensibilities, here are some tips to capture the refined and eloquent mannerisms typical of the period:

### 1. Embrace Regency-Era Vocabulary and Phrases

- **Formal Address**: Use formal titles such as "Mr.," "Miss," "Mrs.," or "Lady" when addressing others. For example, "Mr. Bridgerton, might I have a word?"

  

- **Polite Expressions**: Employ courteous phrases like "I beg your pardon," "If you please," or "Pray, forgive me."

- **Elegant Vocabulary**: Incorporate sophisticated words and phrases typical of the Regency era, such as "dear sir," "charming," "delightful," "most agreeable," "exquisite," or "splendid."

### 2. Pay Attention to Pronunciation and Diction

- **Enunciation**: Speak clearly and articulate each word, emphasizing vowels and consonants in a manner that conveys precision and elegance.

- **Modulation**: Vary your tone and pitch to add emphasis and convey emotions subtly. Practice speaking with a measured cadence, avoiding hurried speech.

### 3. Adopt Formal Grammar and Syntax

- **Proper Grammar**: Use correct grammar, including appropriate use of pronouns ("thou," "thee," "thy" for singular informal, and "you," "your," "yours" for formal or plural).

- **Elevated Syntax**: Structure sentences with a formal syntax that reflects the elegance of the time. For example, "It would be most fortuitous if we could meet at dawn," instead of "Let's meet at dawn."

### 4. Cultivate Poise and Etiquette

- **Poised Delivery**: Maintain composure and grace in your speech, reflecting the refined manners of the Regency era.

- **Etiquette**: Observe social etiquette, such as addressing higher-ranking individuals with deference and using proper manners in conversation.

### 5. Study Characters and Dialogue from "Bridgerton"

- **Dialogue Study**: Watch "Bridgerton" and pay attention to how characters speak, their vocabulary, mannerisms, and interactions. Note their use of formal language and idiomatic expressions.

- **Character Inspiration**: Identify a character whose speech resonates with you and emulate their style. Whether it's the eloquence of Daphne Bridgerton or the wit of Lady Whistledown, draw inspiration from their dialogue.

### 6. Practice and Confidence

- **Practice**: Engage in role-playing or practice speaking in front of a mirror to refine your speech and delivery.

- **Confidence**: Project confidence in your speech, embodying the aristocratic demeanor of a Regency-era character from "Bridgerton."

By embracing these tips and immersing yourself in the language and etiquette of the Regency era as portrayed in "Bridgerton," you can speak with the refined and eloquent mannerisms characteristic of the period. Enjoy embracing the elegance and charm of this captivating historical drama!

### Note about Beyoncé

Beyoncé Giselle Knowles-Carter, known simply as Beyoncé, stands as a global icon in music, fashion, and culture. Rising to fame as the lead vocalist of Destiny's Child, she has since forged a successful solo career marked by her powerful voice, electrifying performances, and profound influence. From Grammy Awards to groundbreaking music videos and philanthropic endeavors, Beyoncé continues to redefine the boundaries of artistry and empowerment, inspiring millions worldwide with her resilience, creativity, and unapologetic celebration of Black excellence.

### Note about Rihanna

Robyn Rihanna Fenty, better known as Rihanna, is not just a pop superstar but a cultural phenomenon who has transcended music to become a fashion mogul, beauty entrepreneur, and philanthropist. Emerging from Barbados, Rihanna's journey from "Pon de Replay" to global hits like "Umbrella" and "Diamonds" showcases her evolution as an artist unafraid to push boundaries. With her Fenty Beauty cosmetics line and Savage X Fenty lingerie brand, she champions inclusivity and diversity in the beauty and fashion industries, cementing her legacy as a visionary and trailblazer.

### Note about Mariah Carey

Mariah Carey, the "Songbird Supreme," has left an indelible mark on the music industry with her five-octave vocal range, chart-topping hits, and timeless Christmas classic, "All I Want for Christmas Is You." From her debut album in 1990 to becoming one of the best-selling artists of all time, Carey's career is a testament to her vocal prowess and ability to connect with audiences on a profound emotional level. Beyond music, Carey's philanthropy and advocacy for mental health awareness demonstrate her commitment to making a positive impact in the world, solidifying her status as a beloved and enduring icon.

### Understanding Fast Fashion: Impact, Issues, and Alternatives

Fast fashion refers to the rapid production of inexpensive clothing collections that mimic current fashion trends. This phenomenon has revolutionized the fashion industry, making trendy clothing accessible and affordable to consumers worldwide. However, behind its allure lies a complex web of environmental, social, and ethical issues that warrant closer examination.

#### 1. The Rise of Fast Fashion

- **Business Model**: Fast fashion brands like Zara, H&M, and Forever 21 thrive on quick turnover of styles, from runway to store shelves in a matter of weeks. This model allows them to capitalize on consumer demand for trendy clothing at low prices.

- **Consumer Appeal**: Fast fashion appeals to consumers seeking affordable clothing that mirrors high-end fashion trends. The ability to purchase new items frequently keeps wardrobes constantly updated.

#### 2. Environmental Impact

- **Resource Depletion**: Fast fashion accelerates resource depletion by consuming large amounts of water, energy, and raw materials like cotton and synthetic fibers. Production processes contribute to pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.

- **Waste Generation**: The industry generates massive textile waste due to overproduction, unsold inventory, and low-quality garments that quickly lose appeal and end up in landfills.

- **Microfiber Pollution**: Synthetic fabrics shed microfibers during washing, polluting oceans and harming marine life. This adds to the environmental footprint of fast fashion.

#### 3. Social and Ethical Issues

- **Labor Exploitation**: Fast fashion is notorious for exploitative labor practices in developing countries, where workers endure long hours, low wages, unsafe working conditions, and lack of labor rights.

- **Lack of Transparency**: Brands often lack transparency in their supply chains, making it difficult to trace the origins of garments or ensure ethical production practices.

- **Impact on Local Economies**: The race to produce cheap clothing undermines local economies in developing countries by driving down wages and perpetuating cycles of poverty.

#### 4. Cultural and Psychological Effects

- **Disposable Culture**: Fast fashion promotes a culture of disposability, where clothing is treated as transient and easily replaceable. This mindset contributes to overconsumption and waste.

- **Body Image Issues**: Constant turnover of trends can lead to body image issues as consumers feel pressured to keep up with ever-changing ideals of beauty and fashion.

#### 5. Alternatives and Solutions

- **Slow Fashion Movement**: Advocates for slow fashion promote sustainable practices such as buying fewer, high-quality garments, supporting ethical brands, and embracing timeless styles.

- **Ethical Fashion**: Brands committed to ethical fashion prioritize transparency, fair labor practices, sustainable materials, and minimizing environmental impact.

- **Circular Economy**: Promoting a circular economy involves recycling, upcycling, and extending the life cycle of clothing through repair, resale, and rental services.

#### 6. Consumer Empowerment

- **Educate Yourself**: Learn about the environmental and social impacts of fast fashion. Support brands that prioritize sustainability and ethical practices.

- **Choose Quality Over Quantity**: Invest in well-made clothing that lasts longer and transcends trends. Consider second-hand shopping and clothing swaps to reduce waste.

- **Demand Accountability**: Hold brands accountable for their practices. Support legislation and initiatives that promote transparency and ethical standards in the fashion industry.

### Conclusion

Fast fashion has revolutionized the way we consume clothing, offering affordability and accessibility but at a significant cost to the environment, labor rights, and cultural values. As awareness grows about its impact, consumers, brands, and policymakers have a crucial role in promoting sustainable and ethical practices. By embracing alternatives like slow fashion and supporting transparency in supply chains, we can work towards a more sustainable future where fashion is both stylish and conscientious of its global footprint.

Certainly! Here is a detailed exploration of Ukraine, covering its history, culture, economy, politics, and more.

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### Introduction to Ukraine

Ukraine, located in Eastern Europe, is a country with a rich history, diverse culture, and strategic geopolitical significance. Bordered by Russia to the east, Belarus to the north, Poland, Slovakia, and Hungary to the west, and Romania and Moldova to the south, Ukraine has played a pivotal role in European history and continues to shape global politics and economics.

### Historical Overview

#### Ancient and Medieval Periods

- **Early Settlements**: Ukraine's history dates back to ancient times, with early settlements dating to the Neolithic era. The region saw successive waves of migration and settlement by various Indo-European tribes.
  
- **Kyivan Rus**: The medieval state of Kyivan Rus, centered around the city of Kyiv (Kiev), emerged as a powerful Eastern European empire in the 9th century. It played a crucial role in the spread of Christianity in the region and served as a cultural and political hub.

#### Cossack Era and Imperial Rule

- **Cossack Hetmanate**: In the 17th and 18th centuries, Ukraine experienced a period of autonomy under the Cossack Hetmanate, a semi-autonomous state allied with the Russian Empire at times but also asserting independence.
  
- **Imperial Rule**: Ukraine came under control of the Russian Empire in the late 18th century after the partitions of Poland, leading to a period of Russification and suppression of Ukrainian national identity.

### Modern History

#### 20th Century Turmoil

- **Soviet Era**: Ukraine became a Soviet Republic in 1922 after the Russian Revolution. Under Soviet rule, Ukraine experienced rapid industrialization but also endured famines (such as the Holodomor in the 1930s) and political repression.
  
- **World War II**: Ukraine suffered heavily during World War II, with devastating losses and widespread destruction. The city of Kyiv was occupied by Nazi forces before being liberated by the Soviet Army.

#### Independence and Post-Soviet Period

- **Independence**: Ukraine declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 following the collapse of communism. The declaration marked a new chapter in Ukrainian history, characterized by efforts to build a democratic society and integrate with Europe.
  
- **Political Turbulence**: Since independence, Ukraine has faced challenges including political instability, corruption, economic reforms, and geopolitical tensions with Russia, particularly over Crimea and eastern regions.

### Culture and Society

#### Language and Identity

- **Language**: Ukrainian is the official language, while Russian is widely spoken, especially in eastern and southern regions. The language issue reflects broader cultural and political divides within the country.
  
- **Cultural Heritage**: Ukraine boasts a rich cultural heritage, including folk traditions, music, dance (such as hopak), literature (Taras Shevchenko), and religious festivals.

#### Cuisine

- **Traditional Foods**: Ukrainian cuisine features hearty dishes like borscht (beet soup), varenyky (dumplings), holubtsi (stuffed cabbage rolls), and salo (cured pork fat). These reflect Ukraine's agricultural traditions and regional diversity.

### Economy and Industry

#### Economic Transition

- **Post-Soviet Transition**: Ukraine's economy underwent a transition from a centrally planned to a market-based system after independence. Privatization, industrial restructuring, and foreign investment played key roles.

- **Key Sectors**: Ukraine's economy is diverse, with agriculture (grains, sunflower oil), heavy industry (metallurgy, machinery), energy (coal, natural gas), and services (IT outsourcing) being major sectors.

#### Challenges

- **Corruption**: Corruption has been a persistent challenge, affecting governance, business climate, and foreign investment.

- **Conflict and Instability**: The ongoing conflict in eastern Ukraine, coupled with geopolitical tensions with Russia, poses significant challenges to stability, economic development, and national unity.

### Geopolitical Importance

#### Relations with Russia and the West

- **EU Integration**: Ukraine has sought closer ties with the European Union, signing an Association Agreement in 2014. This move sparked protests (Euromaidan) and led to increased tensions with Russia.

- **Crimea and Donbas**: Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014 and ongoing conflict in eastern Ukraine (Donbas region) have heightened geopolitical tensions and strained relations with Western countries.

### Future Prospects

#### European Integration

- **EU and NATO Aspirations**: Ukraine continues to pursue closer integration with the European Union and NATO, aiming to enhance security, stability, and economic opportunities.

- **Reforms**: The Ukrainian government is implementing reforms to address corruption, strengthen institutions, improve governance, and attract foreign investment.

### Conclusion

Ukraine's history and contemporary challenges reflect its complex geopolitical position and cultural richness. As it navigates political, economic, and social transitions, Ukraine remains a pivotal player in Eastern Europe, shaping regional dynamics and international relations. With ongoing efforts to reform and integrate with Europe, Ukraine's future holds both challenges and opportunities as it strives for stability, prosperity, and national unity.

Italian fashion is renowned worldwide for its sophistication, craftsmanship, and innovation. Here are some key points about Italian fashion:

1. **Historical Roots**: Italian fashion has deep roots dating back to the Renaissance when Italy was a center of fashion and luxury goods production.

2. **Luxury Brands**: Italy is home to many iconic luxury fashion houses such as Gucci, Prada, Versace, Dolce & Gabbana, and Valentino, known for their high-quality materials and craftsmanship.

3. **Tailoring Excellence**: Italian tailoring is celebrated for its impeccable fit and attention to detail. Milan, Florence, and Rome are centers known for their skilled artisans and bespoke tailoring traditions.

4. **Textile Innovation**: Italian fashion is at the forefront of textile innovation, producing luxurious fabrics like silk, cashmere, and fine wool. Italian mills are renowned for their quality and creativity in fabric design.

5. **Influence of Art and Culture**: Italian fashion often draws inspiration from the country's rich artistic heritage, incorporating elements from architecture, art, and cultural traditions.

6. **Emphasis on Elegance**: Italian fashion is characterized by its emphasis on elegance and sophistication. Italian designers are known for their ability to blend classic styles with modern trends.

7. **Global Influence**: Italian fashion has a significant influence on global fashion trends, setting standards for luxury and style across the world.

8. **Fashion Capitals**: Milan is considered one of the "Big Four" fashion capitals, along with Paris, New York, and London, hosting prestigious fashion weeks that showcase the latest collections from Italian designers.

9. **Casual Chic**: Italian fashion is not only about formal attire but also embraces a casual yet sophisticated style. Italian casual wear often combines comfort with impeccable tailoring and high-quality materials.

10. **Celebrity Endorsement**: Italian fashion brands are favored by celebrities and fashion icons, further enhancing their prestige and global visibility.

Overall, Italian fashion represents a blend of tradition, innovation, and timeless elegance that continues to shape the global fashion industry.

Trying to get your ex back can be a delicate and emotional process. Here are some notes on approaching this situation:

1. **Assess the Situation**: Before taking any action, assess why the relationship ended and whether reconciliation is truly what you both want.

2. **Give Space and Time**: Respect their space and give both yourself and your ex time to heal and reflect on the relationship.

3. **Self-Reflection**: Reflect on your own behavior and the reasons behind the breakup. Consider what changes you might need to make for a healthier relationship.

4. **Initiate Contact Carefully**: If you decide to reach out, do so in a respectful and non-intrusive manner. Start with a casual conversation rather than immediately bringing up getting back together.

5. **Show Growth**: Demonstrate personal growth and positive changes since the breakup. This might involve addressing past issues or improving aspects of your life.

6. **Listen and Understand**: Be willing to listen to their perspective and understand their feelings. Avoid blame or arguments.

7. **Apologize Sincerely**: If you've hurt them in any way, apologize sincerely and take responsibility for your actions.

8. **Build Trust**: Rebuild trust gradually by being consistent in your words and actions. Show that you're committed to making things work.

9. **Take Things Slowly**: Don't rush reconciliation. Take time to rebuild your connection and ensure that both of you are on the same page.

10. **Respect Their Decision**: Ultimately, respect their decision if they're not interested in reconciling. Sometimes it's best to accept the breakup and focus on personal growth.

Remember, getting back together with an ex can be complex and isn't always the best course of action. Prioritize your own well-being and emotional health throughout the process.

Leaving an abusive relationship is a deeply personal and often challenging decision that requires careful planning, emotional support, and a commitment to one's own safety and well-being. While it's not feasible to provide a 5000-word comprehensive guide in this format, I can outline key considerations and steps involved in leaving an abusive relationship:

### Understanding Abuse
1. **Recognizing Abuse**: Understand the different forms of abuse (physical, emotional, verbal, financial, sexual) and recognize signs of abusive behavior.
   
2. **Impact of Abuse**: Acknowledge the impact of abuse on your mental, emotional, and physical health, as well as on your self-esteem and confidence.

### Preparing to Leave
3. **Safety Planning**: Develop a safety plan that includes identifying safe places to go, keeping important documents (ID, financial records) safe, and establishing a communication plan.

4. **Building Support**: Reach out to trusted friends, family, or support organizations such as shelters or hotlines for emotional support and practical assistance.

5. **Financial Independence**: Work towards financial independence by saving money, opening a separate bank account, and securing employment if possible.

### Taking Action
6. **Legal Considerations**: Understand your legal rights regarding protection orders, custody arrangements (if children are involved), and accessing legal assistance.

7. **Choosing a Time**: Select a safe time to leave when the abuser is not present or when you have support available. 

8. **Ending the Relationship**: Communicate your decision clearly and firmly, either in person (if safe) or through a safer method such as phone or with the support of a third party.

### After Leaving
9. **Safety Measures**: Implement ongoing safety measures such as changing locks, alerting employers or schools, and considering a new routine or location.

10. **Emotional Healing**: Seek counseling or therapy to process the trauma of abuse, rebuild self-esteem, and establish healthy boundaries in future relationships.

11. **Legal and Practical Support**: Pursue legal avenues for protection, custody, and financial support if necessary. Utilize community resources for housing, job training, or financial assistance.

### Long-term Recovery
12. **Self-Care and Self-Compassion**: Focus on self-care activities that promote healing and recovery, such as exercise, mindfulness, and engaging in hobbies or interests.

13. **Rebuilding Relationships**: Reconnect with supportive friends and family members while establishing new, healthy relationships based on trust and respect.

14. **Educational and Vocational Goals**: Set personal goals for education or career development to empower yourself and build a stable future.

### Conclusion
Leaving an abusive relationship is a courageous step that requires careful planning, emotional support, and a commitment to personal safety and well-being.

 Every situation is unique, and seeking guidance from domestic violence advocates, counselors, or support groups can provide personalized assistance and resources. Remember, you deserve to live a life free from abuse, and there are people and organizations ready to support you on your journey to safety and healing.

Achieving beauty is a multifaceted journey that encompasses physical, emotional, and spiritual dimensions. 

---

### Introduction
- Define beauty in its broadest sense: encompassing physical attractiveness, inner qualities, and cultural perspectives.
- Importance of beauty in different aspects of life: personal confidence, societal norms, cultural perceptions.

### Physical Beauty

#### 1. Skincare
- Importance of skincare routines: cleansing, moisturizing, sun protection.
- Understanding different skin types and appropriate care.
- Incorporating natural remedies and professional treatments.

#### 2. Hair Care
- Hair health and maintenance: washing, conditioning, styling.
- Choosing products suitable for hair type and scalp condition.
- Hairstyling tips and trends.

#### 3. Nutrition and Fitness
- Role of nutrition in skin, hair, and overall appearance.
- Balanced diet recommendations for healthy skin and hair.
- Importance of hydration and its impact on beauty.
- Exercise and its effects on physical appearance and mental well-being.

#### 4. Fashion and Style
- Understanding personal style and fashion trends.
- Dressing for body type and occasion.
- Impact of color and accessories on appearance.
- Sustainable fashion choices.

### Inner Beauty

#### 5. Self-Confidence and Self-Esteem
- Techniques for boosting self-confidence.
- Overcoming insecurities and negative self-talk.
- Importance of self-care and self-compassion.

#### 6. Mental and Emotional Well-being
- Practices for reducing stress and promoting mental health.
- Impact of mental well-being on physical appearance.
- Building resilience and coping mechanisms.

#### 7. Kindness and Compassion
- Beauty of empathy and compassion towards oneself and others.
- Cultivating kindness as a virtue that enhances personal beauty.

### Spiritual Beauty

#### 8. Meditation and Mindfulness
- Benefits of meditation for inner peace and clarity.
- Mindfulness practices for self-awareness and emotional balance.

#### 9. Connection with Nature
- Beauty of nature and its therapeutic effects.
- Practices like forest bathing and eco-therapy.

### Cultural and Societal Perspectives

#### 10. Diversity in Beauty
- Celebrating diverse cultural standards of beauty.
- Beauty standards across different eras and cultures.
- Impact of media and advertising on beauty perceptions.

#### 11. Beauty Industry
- Evolution of the beauty industry: trends and innovations.
- Ethical considerations in beauty products and treatments.
- Consumer awareness and empowerment.

### Conclusion

- Recap the holistic concept of beauty explored: physical, inner, and spiritual dimensions.
- Emphasize the importance of balance and self-acceptance in achieving personal beauty.
- Encourage ongoing exploration and growth towards a healthier and more beautiful life.

---

Developing confidence is a journey that involves understanding oneself, building resilience, and cultivating positive behaviors and attitudes. Here's a comprehensive outline for a 5000-word exploration on how to be more confident:

---

### Introduction
- Define confidence and its importance in personal and professional growth.
- Discuss the impact of confidence on relationships, career success, and overall well-being.

### Understanding Confidence

#### 1. Psychological Foundations of Confidence
- Define self-confidence vs. self-esteem.
- Psychological theories (e.g., Bandura's self-efficacy) on confidence development.
- Impact of childhood experiences and socialization on confidence.

#### 2. Types of Confidence
- Differentiate between situational confidence and general self-confidence.
- Confidence in specific domains (e.g., public speaking, social situations, leadership).

### Building Self-Awareness

#### 3. Understanding Yourself
- Techniques for self-assessment and understanding strengths and weaknesses.
- Identifying limiting beliefs and negative self-talk.
- Importance of self-acceptance and embracing imperfections.

#### 4. Setting Personal Goals
- SMART goals framework for setting achievable objectives.
- Linking goals to personal values and aspirations.
- Tracking progress and celebrating achievements.

### Developing Positive Mindset

#### 5. Overcoming Fear and Self-Doubt
- Strategies for managing fear of failure and rejection.
- Cognitive-behavioral techniques (e.g., reframing, visualization) for building resilience.
- Learning from setbacks and using them as opportunities for growth.

#### 6. Cultivating Optimism
- Benefits of positive thinking on confidence and well-being.
- Techniques for cultivating optimism and resilience.
- Practicing gratitude and mindfulness to enhance positive outlook.

### Enhancing Social Confidence

#### 7. Effective Communication Skills
- Active listening techniques and assertiveness training.
- Overcoming communication barriers (e.g., public speaking anxiety).
- Non-verbal communication and body language.

#### 8. Building Relationships
- Strategies for building rapport and forming meaningful connections.
- Handling conflicts and managing interpersonal dynamics.
- Importance of empathy and emotional intelligence.

### Improving Professional Confidence

#### 9. Career Development
- Skills development and continuous learning.
- Building a professional network and seeking mentorship.
- Strategies for advancing in career and negotiating promotions.

#### 10. Leadership and Decision-Making
- Characteristics of confident leaders.
- Decision-making strategies and risk assessment.
- Inspiring and motivating others through confident leadership.

### Physical and Emotional Well-being

#### 11. Physical Health and Confidence
- Impact of exercise, nutrition, and sleep on confidence levels.
- Techniques for managing stress and promoting relaxation.
- Importance of self-care and maintaining physical well-being.

#### 12. Emotional Regulation
- Techniques for managing emotions and maintaining emotional stability.
- Building emotional resilience and coping with stressors.
- Seeking professional help when needed (e.g., therapy, counseling).

### Confidence in Different Contexts

#### 13. Personal Finance and Confidence
- Financial literacy and its impact on confidence.
- Building financial security and managing financial risks.
- Overcoming financial anxiety and setting financial goals.

#### 14. Cultural and Societal Influences
- Cultural differences in confidence expression.
- Impact of social media and societal expectations on self-image.
- Promoting diversity and inclusion in building confidence.

### Conclusion

- Recap the key strategies and principles discussed for building confidence.
- Emphasize the importance of continuous growth and self-development.
- Encourage readers to apply newfound confidence in all aspects of their lives.

---

This outline provides a structured approach to exploring various facets of confidence, combining practical advice with psychological insights and personal development strategies. Each section can be expanded with research findings, case studies, expert opinions, and practical exercises to guide readers on their journey to greater confidence.

Achieving clear skin involves a combination of consistent skincare practices, healthy lifestyle choices, and sometimes professional treatments. Here are detailed notes on how to get clear skin:

---

### Understanding Your Skin

1. **Know Your Skin Type**:
   - Identify whether your skin is normal, dry, oily, combination, or sensitive.
   - Understanding your skin type helps in choosing appropriate skincare products and routines.

2. **Common Skin Issues**:
   - Acne: Causes include excess oil production, clogged pores, bacteria, and inflammation.
   - Hyperpigmentation: Dark spots or patches caused by increased melanin production.
   - Dryness or Dehydration: Lack of moisture in the skin, leading to flakiness and tightness.
   - Sensitivity: Reactivity to certain products or environmental factors, causing redness or irritation.

### Establishing a Skincare Routine

3. **Daily Cleansing**:
   - Use a gentle cleanser suitable for your skin type to remove dirt, oil, and impurities.
   - Cleansing should be done twice daily, morning and evening, to keep pores clear.

4. **Exfoliation**:
   - Regular exfoliation helps remove dead skin cells and prevents clogged pores.
   - Choose between physical exfoliants (scrubs) or chemical exfoliants (AHAs, BHAs) based on skin sensitivity and needs.
   - Limit exfoliation to 1-3 times per week to avoid over-exfoliation and irritation.

5. **Moisturizing**:
   - Hydrate the skin with a suitable moisturizer to maintain its natural moisture balance.
   - Moisturizers should be applied after cleansing to lock in moisture and prevent dryness.

6. **Sun Protection**:
   - Use a broad-spectrum sunscreen with SPF 30 or higher daily, even on cloudy days.
   - Sunscreen protects the skin from harmful UV rays that can cause premature aging and skin damage.

### Healthy Lifestyle Habits

7. **Nutrition and Hydration**:
   - Eat a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains.
   - Avoid excessive consumption of sugary and processed foods, which can contribute to inflammation and acne.
   - Drink plenty of water throughout the day to keep the skin hydrated and flush out toxins.

8. **Sleep and Stress Management**:
   - Aim for 7-9 hours of quality sleep each night to allow the skin time to repair and regenerate.
   - Manage stress through relaxation techniques such as meditation, yoga, or deep breathing exercises.
   - Chronic stress can exacerbate skin conditions like acne and eczema.

9. **Exercise Regularly**:
   - Physical activity promotes healthy circulation, which nourishes the skin and helps remove toxins.
   - Shower after exercise to cleanse sweat and bacteria from the skin, especially if prone to acne.

### Professional Treatments and Considerations

10. **Consulting a Dermatologist**:
    - Seek professional advice for persistent or severe skin issues like acne, rosacea, or eczema.
    - Dermatologists can recommend prescription treatments such as topical creams, oral medications, or procedures like chemical peels or laser therapy.

11. **Avoiding Harsh Products**:
    - Choose skincare products labeled as non-comedogenic and fragrance-free to minimize irritation and breakouts.
    - Avoid harsh ingredients like alcohol, sulfates, and synthetic fragrances that can strip the skin of its natural oils.

### Additional Tips

12. **Consistency is Key**:
    - Clear skin results from consistent skincare habits and healthy lifestyle choices over time.
    - Be patient and give new products or routines time to show results before making changes.

13. **Monitoring Skin Changes**:
    - Pay attention to how your skin responds to products and environmental factors.
    - Adjust your skincare routine as needed based on seasonal changes, stress levels, and hormonal fluctuations.

### Conclusion

Achieving clear skin involves a holistic approach that combines proper skincare habits, healthy lifestyle choices, and occasional professional treatments. By understanding your skin type, establishing a consistent skincare routine, adopting healthy habits, and seeking professional advice when needed, you can maintain clear, healthy skin for the long term.

Planning a wedding involves numerous steps to ensure a smooth and memorable event. Here’s a detailed step-by-step guide to help you plan your wedding effectively:

---

### Step 1: Set Your Budget

1. **Determine your total budget**: Consider contributions from both sides of the family, savings, and any additional funds.
   
2. **Allocate funds**: Divide your budget among different categories such as venue, catering, attire, decorations, etc.
   
3. **Create a contingency fund**: Set aside some money for unexpected expenses or last-minute additions.

### Step 2: Create a Timeline

1. **Choose a wedding date**: Consider factors like season, availability of venues, and personal preferences.
   
2. **Set a timeline**: Create a detailed schedule leading up to the wedding day, including deadlines for bookings and appointments.

### Step 3: Draft Your Guest List

1. **Decide on the size**: Determine how many guests you want to invite based on your budget and venue capacity.
   
2. **Compile a list**: Make a preliminary list of guests, including family, friends, and colleagues.

### Step 4: Choose Your Wedding Party

1. **Select your wedding party**: Choose bridesmaids, groomsmen, and other members of your wedding party.
   
2. **Assign responsibilities**: Clarify roles and responsibilities for each member of the wedding party.

### Step 5: Book Your Venue

1. **Research venues**: Visit potential venues or research online to find a location that fits your budget and style.
   
2. **Book early**: Secure your venue as soon as possible, especially if you have a specific date in mind.

### Step 6: Select Vendors

1. **Research vendors**: Find and compare vendors such as caterers, photographers, florists, DJs or bands, and officiants.
   
2. **Read reviews and get recommendations**: Check reviews and ask for recommendations from friends or other vendors.

3. **Schedule consultations**: Meet with potential vendors to discuss services, pricing, and availability.

### Step 7: Choose Your Wedding Attire

1. **Shop for wedding attire**: Start looking for your wedding dress and groom’s attire well in advance.
   
2. **Schedule fittings**: Plan fittings and alterations to ensure your attire fits perfectly.

### Step 8: Plan Catering and Menu

1. **Select a caterer**: Choose a caterer based on your budget and menu preferences.
   
2. **Decide on the menu**: Create a menu that suits your taste and dietary preferences of your guests.

### Step 9: Arrange Decorations and Flowers

1. **Choose a theme or style**: Decide on a wedding theme or color scheme for decorations.
   
2. **Find a florist**: Select a florist to create arrangements for the ceremony and reception.

### Step 10: Plan the Ceremony and Reception

1. **Design the ceremony**: Decide on the order of events, vows, readings, and music for the ceremony.
   
2. **Plan the reception**: Arrange seating, create a timeline for speeches, dances, and other activities.

### Step 11: Send Invitations and Manage RSVPs

1. **Design and send invitations**: Send out invitations with RSVP details well in advance.
   
2. **Track RSVPs**: Keep track of responses and finalize guest numbers for catering and seating arrangements.

### Step 12: Arrange Transportation and Accommodation

1. **Organize transportation**: Arrange transportation for yourself, wedding party, and guests if necessary.
   
2. **Book accommodation**: Reserve rooms for out-of-town guests and yourselves for the wedding night.

### Step 13: Finalize Details

1. **Review contracts**: Double-check contracts with vendors and confirm details such as timings and services.
   
2. **Create a wedding day timeline**: Create a detailed timeline for the wedding day, including hair and makeup, photography, and ceremony start times.

### Step 14: Plan Rehearsal Dinner

1. **Choose a venue**: Select a venue and plan a rehearsal dinner for the night before the wedding.
   
2. **Confirm details**: Confirm guest numbers, menu choices, and any special arrangements.

### Step 15: Enjoy Your Wedding Day!

1. **Delegate responsibilities**: Assign tasks to trusted friends or family members to handle last-minute details.
   
2. **Relax and enjoy**: Focus on each moment and celebrate your special day with your loved ones.

### Step 16: Post-Wedding Tasks

1. **Thank you notes**: Send thank you notes to guests and vendors for their support and services.
   
2. **Review and preserve memories**: Review photos and videos from the wedding day and preserve them for future memories.

---

This step-by-step guide provides a comprehensive framework for planning a wedding, ensuring that you cover all essential aspects to create a memorable and enjoyable celebration. Adjust the timeline and details according to your preferences and specific wedding needs.

## **What They Don't Tell You About Pregnancy**

**Physical Changes and Symptoms**

1. **Morning Sickness**: 
   - Can occur at any time of the day, not just in the morning.
   - May last beyond the first trimester.

2. **Fatigue**:
   - Extreme tiredness is common, especially in the first and third trimesters.
   - Rest as needed; listen to your body.

3. **Skin Changes**:
   - Stretch marks, acne, and pigmentation changes (like the “pregnancy mask”).
   - Itchy skin due to stretching.

4. **Digestive Issues**:
   - Constipation and heartburn are common.
   - Increased gas and bloating.

5. **Frequent Urination**:
   - Pressure from the growing uterus on the bladder increases the need to pee.

6. **Swelling**:
   - Swelling in feet, ankles, and hands due to increased fluid retention.

7. **Body Aches**:
   - Back pain, pelvic pain, and leg cramps due to the added weight and changing body.

8. **Breast Changes**:
   - Tenderness, enlargement, and possible leakage of colostrum.

**Emotional and Mental Health**

1. **Mood Swings**:
   - Hormonal changes can lead to unpredictable emotions.
   - Anxiety and depression can occur; seek support if needed.

2. **Brain Fog**:
   - Forgetfulness and difficulty concentrating, often referred to as “pregnancy brain.”

3. **Body Image**:
   - Changes in appearance can affect self-esteem and body image.
   - Embrace the changes and seek support if struggling.

**Lifestyle Adjustments**

1. **Dietary Restrictions**:
   - Avoid certain foods (e.g., raw fish, deli meats, unpasteurized cheese).
   - Need for prenatal vitamins, especially folic acid and iron.

2. **Exercise**:
   - Important for health, but modifications may be necessary.
   - Consult with a healthcare provider about safe exercises.

3. **Sleep Disruptions**:
   - Difficulty sleeping due to discomfort, frequent urination, and vivid dreams.
   - Find comfortable sleeping positions, use pillows for support.

4. **Medical Appointments**:
   - Frequent prenatal visits and tests.
   - Monitoring for conditions like gestational diabetes and preeclampsia.

**Social and Relationship Changes**

1. **Support System**:
   - Importance of a strong support system from family and friends.
   - Open communication with partner about needs and concerns.

2. **Social Expectations**:
   - Managing unsolicited advice and comments from others.
   - Balancing work and personal life with pregnancy demands.

**Labor and Delivery Realities**

1. **Birth Plans**:
   - Birth plans may not go as expected; flexibility is key.
   - Be prepared for different scenarios, including potential complications.

2. **Pain Management**:
   - Various pain relief options (e.g., epidural, natural methods).
   - Educate yourself on choices and discuss with your healthcare provider.

3. **Postpartum Recovery**:
   - Recovery time varies; includes healing from delivery and adjusting to new routines.
   - Physical and emotional changes continue after birth.

**Unexpected Changes**

1. **Hair and Nail Changes**:
   - Hair may become thicker during pregnancy but may shed post-birth.
   - Nails may grow faster but can become brittle.

2. **Vision Changes**:
   - Some women experience vision changes or increased prescription needs.

3. **Increased Sensitivity**:
   - Heightened sense of smell and taste.
   - Sensitivity to certain fabrics or materials.

**Financial and Practical Considerations**

1. **Costs**:
   - Consider the costs of prenatal care, delivery, and baby supplies.
   - Plan and budget accordingly.

2. **Work Adjustments**:
   - Maternity leave policies vary; understand your options.
   - Discuss plans with your employer early.

3. **Home Preparation**:
   - Preparing the home for the baby (nursery, safety measures).
   - Consider necessary purchases (e.g., car seats, strollers).

**Long-term Considerations**

1. **Parenting Classes**:
   - Helpful to prepare for the realities of caring for a newborn.
   - Topics can include breastfeeding, infant CPR, and basic baby care.

2. **Bonding and Attachment**:
   - Early bonding with the baby is important for emotional development.
   - Skin-to-skin contact and breastfeeding can enhance bonding.

3. **Future Planning**:
   - Consider long-term plans such as child care, education, and family planning.
   - Discuss and plan with your partner.

### **Conclusion**

Pregnancy is a unique journey with various physical, emotional, and practical changes. Being informed and prepared can help manage expectations and navigate the challenges. Seeking support, maintaining open communication, and staying flexible are key to a positive pregnancy experience.

---

**Introduction to Poop**

- Poop, also called stool or feces, is the waste left after digestion.
- It's a natural and essential part of the digestive process.
- Understanding poop can provide insights into overall health.

**The Digestive Process**

1. **Mouth**: Food is chewed and mixed with saliva, starting the digestion process.
2. **Esophagus**: Food travels down this tube to the stomach.
3. **Stomach**: Food is mixed with digestive juices, turning it into a liquid mixture called chyme.
4. **Small Intestine**: Nutrients are absorbed from chyme into the bloodstream.
5. **Large Intestine**: Water is absorbed from the remaining waste, forming solid stool.
6. **Rectum and Anus**: Stool is stored in the rectum until it's ready to be excreted through the anus.

**Components of Poop**

- **Water**: Makes up about 75% of poop.
- **Bacteria**: Helps break down food and produce vitamins.
- **Fiber**: Adds bulk to stool, making it easier to pass.
- **Cells and Mucus**: Help stool pass smoothly.
- **Color**: Comes from bile, a digestive fluid from the liver.

**Healthy Poop**

- **Color**: Typically brown, but can be green, yellow, or slightly red depending on diet.
- **Consistency**: Should be soft and easy to pass.
- **Shape**: Usually long and sausage-shaped.
- **Frequency**: Varies from three times a day to three times a week.

**Signs of Unhealthy Poop**

- **Color Changes**: Very dark, black, or red can indicate bleeding; very pale can indicate liver problems.
- **Consistency Changes**: Hard stools may mean constipation; watery stools can indicate diarrhea.
- **Smell Changes**: Extremely foul-smelling poop can indicate an infection or poor digestion.
- **Frequency Changes**: Significant changes in how often you poop can signal a problem.

**Common Digestive Issues**

- **Constipation**: Hard, dry stools that are difficult to pass, often due to lack of fiber or water.
- **Diarrhea**: Loose, watery stools, often caused by infections or certain foods.
- **Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)**: Causes cramping, pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits.
- **Hemorrhoids**: Swollen veins in the rectum or anus, often from straining.
- **Infections**: Bacterial, viral, or parasitic infections affecting digestion.

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**Keeping Your Digestive System Healthy**

- **Eat a Balanced Diet**: Include fruits, vegetables, and whole grains for fiber.
- **Stay Hydrated**: Drink plenty of water.
- **Exercise Regularly**: Helps stimulate digestion.
- **Eat Regular Meals**: Helps regulate your digestive system.
- **Listen to Your Body**: Don’t ignore the urge to poop.

**Poop and Mental Health**

- **Gut-Brain Axis**: Connection between gut and brain; gut health can affect mood.
- **Gut Microbiome**: Trillions of bacteria in the gut aid in digestion and affect overall health.
- **Neurotransmitters**: Gut produces serotonin, impacting mood.
- **Stress and Digestion**: Stress can cause digestive issues like stomachaches, diarrhea, or constipation.

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**Cultural Perspectives on Poop**

- **Toilets and Hygiene**: Varied practices around the world; squat toilets and bidets are common in some cultures.
- **Dietary Practices**: Traditional diets impact digestive health; high-fiber diets are common in many cultures.
- **Taboos and Discussions**: Talking about poop is taboo in some cultures but normal in others.

**Fun Facts About Poop**

- **Animals Poop Differently**: Example: rabbits produce two types of poop.
- **Poop for Communication**: Animals like wolves use poop to mark territory.
- **Guano**: Bird and bat poop used as fertilizer.
- **Bristol Stool Chart**: Tool used by doctors to categorize poop types.
- **Poop Transplants**: Fecal microbiota transplants treat certain infections.

**Environmental Impact of Poop**

- **Sewage Treatment**: Treats human waste to remove harmful bacteria and chemicals.
- **Composting Toilets**: Turn human waste into compost for use as fertilizer.
- **Livestock Waste**: Must be managed to prevent water pollution.

**Detailed Notes**

1. **What Is Poop?**
   - Waste product after digestion.
   - Essential for removing waste from the body.

2. **How Poop Forms**
   - Starts with chewing food in the mouth.
   - Travels through the esophagus to the stomach.
   - Mixed with digestive juices in the stomach.
   - Nutrients absorbed in the small intestine.
   - Water absorbed in the large intestine, forming stool.
   - Stored in the rectum until excreted.

3. **What’s in Poop?**
   - Mostly water (75%).
   - Bacteria that aid digestion.
   - Fiber from plant foods.
   - Shed cells and mucus from intestines.
   - Bile from the liver gives it color.

4. **Healthy Poop Characteristics**
   - Brown color from bile.
   - Soft and easy to pass.
   - Sausage-shaped.
   - Frequency varies: 3 times a day to 3 times a week.

5. **Unhealthy Poop Signs**
   - Dark, black, or red: possible bleeding.
   - Pale or clay-colored: possible liver issues.
   - Hard or watery consistency: constipation or diarrhea.
   - Extremely foul smell: possible infection.
   - Significant changes in frequency.

6. **Common Digestive Problems**
   - **Constipation**: Hard, dry stools; caused by lack of fiber, water, or exercise.
   - **Diarrhea**: Loose, watery stools; caused by infections or certain foods.
   - **IBS**: Cramping, pain, bloating, and bowel habit changes.
   - **Hemorrhoids**: Swollen veins from straining.
   - **Infections**: Bacterial, viral, or parasitic.

7. **Tips for Digestive Health**
   - **Diet**: Eat fiber-rich foods like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
   - **Hydration**: Drink plenty of water.
   - **Exercise**: Regular physical activity.
   - **Regular Meals**: Helps regulate digestion.
   - **Listen to Your Body**: Don’t hold in poop.

8. **Mental Health and Digestion**
   - **Gut-Brain Axis**: Connection between gut and brain.
   - **Gut Microbiome**: Bacteria in the gut aid digestion and affect health.
   - **Neurotransmitters**: Gut produces serotonin, affecting mood.
   - **Stress**: Can cause stomachaches, diarrhea, or constipation.

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9. **Cultural Views on Poop**
   - **Toilets**: Different types (e.g., squat toilets, bidets).
   - **Diet**: Traditional diets impact digestive health.
   - **Taboos**: Some cultures find poop discussions taboo, others don’t.

10. **Interesting Poop Facts**
    - **Animals**: Different animals have different poop habits.
    - **Communication**: Some animals use poop to mark territory.
    - **Guano**: Used as fertilizer.
    - **Bristol Stool Chart**: Categorizes poop types.
    - **Poop Transplants**: Treat certain infections.

11. **Environmental Impact**
    - **Sewage Treatment**: Cleans waste before releasing it.
    - **Composting Toilets**: Eco-friendly alternative, turns waste into compost.
    - **Livestock Waste**: Managed to prevent pollution.

**Conclusion**

- Poop is a natural and necessary function.
- Understanding poop helps monitor health.
- Healthy diet, hydration, and exercise are key to good digestion.
- Mental health impacts digestion.
- Cultural perspectives vary, but open discussions can improve health.

---

What They Don't Tell You About Vagina Health 

Vagina health is often surrounded by myths and misconceptions. Here are some important and often overlooked aspects of vaginal health:

1. **Natural Cleaning**: The vagina is self-cleaning. It naturally maintains its balance of bacteria and pH levels. Overuse of douches, scented products, or harsh soaps can disrupt this balance, leading to infections.

2. **Discharge is Normal**: Vaginal discharge is a normal bodily function and can vary throughout the menstrual cycle. It's a sign that the vagina is healthy and self-cleaning. Changes in color, consistency, or smell can indicate an issue, but daily discharge is typical.

3. **Diet Affects Vaginal Health**: What you eat can influence your vaginal health. A diet high in sugar can contribute to yeast infections, while foods rich in probiotics (like yogurt) can support a healthy balance of bacteria.

4. **Exercise Impact**: Regular exercise promotes overall health, but activities like cycling or horseback riding can cause friction and irritation. Wearing proper clothing and using protective gear can help.

5. **Sexual Health and Lubrication**: Using adequate lubrication during sex can prevent microtears and discomfort. It's also important to urinate after sex to reduce the risk of urinary tract infections.

6. **Menstrual Products**: Using tampons, pads, or menstrual cups safely is crucial. Changing them regularly helps prevent toxic shock syndrome (TSS) and other infections.

7. **Medical Check-ups**: Regular gynecological exams are essential for early detection of issues. Pap smears, HPV tests, and STI screenings can catch problems before they become serious.

8. **Mental Health Connection**: Stress and mental health can affect vaginal health. High stress levels can lead to conditions like bacterial vaginosis. Maintaining mental well-being is part of maintaining physical health.

9. **Impact of Hormones**: Hormonal changes throughout life (puberty, pregnancy, menopause) affect vaginal health. Understanding these changes helps in managing symptoms and maintaining health during these phases.

10. **Clothing Choices**: Tight clothing and non-breathable fabrics can create a warm, moist environment that promotes bacterial growth. Cotton underwear and loose clothing help maintain a healthy environment.

Understanding these aspects helps in maintaining vaginal health and preventing common issues. Always consult a healthcare provider for personalized advice.

Certainly! Lowering cholesterol levels is important for maintaining heart health and overall well-being. Here's a comprehensive guide in simple language on how to lower cholesterol:

---

# How to Lower Cholesterol: A Simple Guide

## Introduction

Cholesterol is a fatty substance found in your blood that is necessary for building healthy cells. However, high levels of cholesterol can increase your risk of heart disease and stroke. Lowering cholesterol involves making healthy lifestyle choices and sometimes using medications under medical supervision. This guide will explore effective strategies to lower cholesterol naturally and improve your heart health.

## Understanding Cholesterol

Cholesterol is categorized into two types: LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and HDL (high-density lipoprotein). LDL cholesterol is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol because high levels can lead to plaque buildup in your arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease. HDL cholesterol, on the other hand, is known as "good" cholesterol because it helps remove LDL cholesterol from your bloodstream.

## Lifestyle Changes to Lower Cholesterol

### 1. **Healthy Eating Habits**

- **Choose Heart-Healthy Fats:** Opt for unsaturated fats found in olive oil, avocados, nuts, and seeds rather than saturated fats found in red meat, butter, and full-fat dairy products.
  
- **Increase Fiber Intake:** Eat more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and legumes to help lower LDL cholesterol levels.

- **Limit Trans Fats:** Avoid foods with trans fats, often found in fried and processed foods, as they can raise LDL cholesterol.

- **Reduce Dietary Cholesterol:** Limit foods high in cholesterol, such as egg yolks and organ meats.

### 2. **Regular Exercise**

- **Aim for Aerobic Exercise:** Engage in activities like brisk walking, jogging, swimming, or cycling for at least 150 minutes per week to improve cholesterol levels.

- **Include Strength Training:** Incorporate resistance exercises like weightlifting or bodyweight exercises to boost HDL cholesterol.

### 3. **Maintain a Healthy Weight**

- **Calorie Control:** Balance the number of calories you consume with those you burn through physical activity.

- **Healthy Portions:** Practice portion control to prevent overeating and maintain a healthy weight.

### 4. **Quit Smoking**

- **Benefits of Quitting:** Smoking lowers HDL cholesterol levels and damages the walls of your blood vessels, increasing the risk of heart disease. Quitting smoking can improve cholesterol levels and overall heart health.

### 5. **Manage Stress**

- **Stress Reduction Techniques:** Practice relaxation techniques such as deep breathing, meditation, yoga, or hobbies to reduce stress levels, which can impact cholesterol levels.

## Medical Treatment Options

### 1. **Medications**

- **Statins:** Prescription medications that lower LDL cholesterol levels by blocking a substance your body needs to make cholesterol.

- **Other Medications:** Your doctor may prescribe other medications, such as bile acid sequestrants, cholesterol absorption inhibitors, or PCSK9 inhibitors, depending on your cholesterol levels and health status.

### 2. **Regular Monitoring**

- **Cholesterol Tests:** Regular blood tests (lipid panel) to monitor cholesterol levels and assess the effectiveness of lifestyle changes and medications.

## Conclusion

Lowering cholesterol levels is essential for reducing the risk of heart disease and improving overall health. By adopting healthy eating habits, engaging in regular physical activity, maintaining a healthy weight, quitting smoking, managing stress, and potentially using medications under medical supervision, you can effectively lower cholesterol levels and support your heart health. Consult your healthcare provider for personalized advice and guidance tailored to your specific needs and health status.

---

This guide provides practical advice in simple language to help you understand and implement strategies for lowering cholesterol levels naturally and improving your heart health.

Certainly! Here's a comprehensive guide on living a happy and long life, complete with a table of contents:

---

# A Guide to Living a Happy and Long Life

## Table of Contents

1. **Introduction**
   - Understanding the Importance of Longevity and Happiness
   - How This Guide Can Help You Achieve Both

2. **Physical Health and Longevity**
   - Importance of Exercise and Physical Activity
   - Healthy Eating Habits for Longevity
   - Regular Health Check-ups and Preventive Care

3. **Mental Well-being and Happiness**
   - Strategies for Managing Stress
   - Importance of Mental Health Awareness
   - Practices for Cultivating a Positive Mindset

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4. **Social Connections and Longevity**
   - Impact of Social Relationships on Longevity
   - Building and Nurturing Meaningful Connections
   - Community Engagement and Its Benefits

5. **Emotional Resilience and Happiness**
   - Developing Emotional Intelligence
   - Coping Strategies for Adversity
   - Practicing Gratitude and Mindfulness

6. **Purpose and Meaning in Life**
   - Finding Your Life's Purpose
   - Setting Meaningful Goals
   - Contribution to Others and Society

7. **Healthy Habits for a Long Life**
   - Quality Sleep and Its Impact on Longevity
   - Importance of Hydration
   - Avoiding Harmful Substances and Habits

8. **Cognitive Health and Happiness**
   - Brain Exercises and Mental Stimulation
   - Importance of Continuous Learning
   - Strategies for Maintaining Cognitive Function

9. **Environmental Factors**
   - Creating a Healthy Living Environment
   - Sustainable Practices for Longevity
   - Connecting with Nature and Its Benefits

10. **Spirituality and Inner Peace**
    - Role of Spirituality in Longevity
    - Practices for Inner Peace and Tranquility
    - Finding Balance in Life

11. **Conclusion**
    - Recap of Key Strategies for a Happy and Long Life
    - Final Thoughts and Encouragement

---

This guide aims to provide practical insights and actionable steps to help you enhance both your happiness and longevity. By focusing on physical health, mental well-being, social connections, purposeful living, healthy habits, cognitive health, environmental factors, and spirituality, you can achieve a more fulfilling and extended life. Let's explore these dimensions together to pave the way for a happier and longer journey ahead!

Welcome to Neolife.offersupermarket.com, your premier destination for a wide range of Neolife products designed to enhance your health and well-being. At Neolife.offersupermarket.com, we are committed to offering scientifically-backed nutritional supplements and wellness solutions that support a balanced lifestyle.

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Certainly! Here's a word search puzzle using keywords related to Neolife:

```
N E O L I F E A H T R O F L A T E M I T R O V E P R O D U C T S
S E E N O H T L A E H E A L T H Y M E A L S S U P P L E M E N T
U S E S C I E N T I F I C A L L Y B A C K E D Q U A L I T Y Y E
T U R N B A C K T O L I F E B A L A N C E D N U T R I T I O N
M U L T I V I T A M I N S T E S T E D N U T R I E N T S U P P L
I E S N A T U R A L L Y D E V E L O P E D N O U R I S H E S K
```

**Words to find:**

1. NEOLIFE
2. HEALTHY
3. PRODUCTS
4. SCIENTIFICALLY
5. QUALITY
6. TURNBACKTOLIFE
7. BALANCED
8. NUTRITION
9. MULTIVITAMINS
10. TESTED
11. NUTRIENTS
12. SUPPLEMENTS
13. NATURALLY
14. DEVELOPED
15. NOURISHES

**Instructions:**

- Find the listed words in the grid.
- Words can be placed horizontally, vertically, diagonally, and backwards.
- Circle each word as you find it.

Enjoy solving the puzzle!

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### Understanding Mental Health, Suicide, and Depression

Mental health refers to our emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It affects how we think, feel, and act, influencing how we handle stress, relate to others, and make choices. When someone experiences poor mental health, it can lead to conditions such as depression.

**Depression** is a common mental health disorder characterized by persistent sadness and loss of interest in activities. It affects how you feel, think, and handle daily activities, impacting your ability to function normally.

**Suicide** is the tragic outcome of severe depression and other mental health issues. It occurs when individuals feel overwhelmed by emotional pain and see no other solution to their problems.https://neolife.offersupermarket.com/product/stresspack

### How Neolife Products Can Help with Mental Health

Neolife offers products designed to support mental well-being through natural ingredients and scientifically-backed formulations:

1. **Omega-3 Supplements**: Omega-3 fatty acids are crucial for brain health and can help alleviate symptoms of depression by supporting neurotransmitter function.neolife.offersupermarket.com/product/omega-salmon-oil

2. **Probiotics**: Gut health is linked to mental health. Probiotics promote a healthy gut microbiome, which can positively influence mood and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression.

3. **Multivitamins**: Nutrient deficiencies can contribute to poor mental health. Neolife’s multivitamins provide essential vitamins and minerals that support overall well-being, including mental health.

4. **Herbal Supplements**: Ingredients like adaptogens (e.g., ashwagandha, rhodiola) and herbs (e.g., St. John’s Wort) have been shown to reduce stress, anxiety, and symptoms of depression.

5. **Protein Shakes and Bars**: Proper nutrition is vital for mental health. Neolife’s protein products provide balanced nutrition that supports mood regulation and overall mental well-being.https://neolife.offersupermarket.com/product/healthymilkshake

### Conclusion

Maintaining good mental health is essential for a fulfilling life. Neolife products offer natural solutions to support mental well-being, complementing healthy lifestyle choices and professional mental health care. By addressing nutritional needs and promoting overall wellness, Neolife contributes to a holistic approach to mental health management.

! Here's a detailed guide on how NeoLife products can support mental health:

---

### Introduction to NeoLife Products for Mental Health

Maintaining good mental health is crucial for overall well-being and quality of life. NeoLife offers a range of nutritional supplements that can complement a healthy lifestyle and support mental health. This comprehensive guide explores the benefits of NeoLife products and their potential impact on mental well-being.

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### Section 1: Understanding Mental Health

1. **Importance of Mental Health**

   - Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being.

   - Good mental health enables individuals to cope with stress, maintain relationships, and lead fulfilling lives.

2. **Factors Affecting Mental Health**

   - **Nutrition:** Diet plays a role in brain function and mood regulation.

   - **Physical Activity:** Exercise promotes mental clarity and reduces stress.

   - **Sleep:** Adequate sleep supports cognitive function and emotional resilience.

   - **Stress Management:** Techniques like mindfulness and relaxation can improve mental health.

### Section 2: NeoLife Products for Mental Health Support

1. **Omega-3 Supplements (NeoLife Salmon Oil Plus)**

   - **Benefits:** Omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) support brain function and mood regulation.

   - **Usage:** Take NeoLife Salmon Oil Plus daily to promote cognitive health and emotional well-being.

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2. **Multivitamins and Minerals (Pro Vitality+)**

   - **Benefits:** Comprehensive nutrition with vitamins, minerals, and Tre-en-en for overall health.

   - **Usage:** Support mental clarity and energy levels with Pro Vitality+.

3. **Antioxidants (Carotenoid Complex)**

   - **Benefits:** Carotenoids like lutein and beta-carotene protect brain cells from oxidative stress.

   - **Usage:** Promote brain health and protect against cognitive decline.

4. **Probiotics and Digestive Health (NeoLife Acidophilus Plus)**

   - **Benefits:** Gut-brain connection supports mood and mental clarity.

   - **Usage:** Maintain gut health with NeoLife Acidophilus Plus for overall well-being.

5. **Vitamin D (Chelated Cal-Mag with Vitamin D3)**

   - **Benefits:** Vitamin D supports neurotransmitter function and mood regulation.

   - **Usage:** Ensure adequate Vitamin D intake for mental health support.

### Section 3: Lifestyle Factors and Mental Health

1. **Nutrition and Diet**

   - **Balanced Diet:** Include fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats to support brain function.

   - **Hydration:** Drink plenty of water to maintain cognitive function and mood stability.

2. **Physical Activity**

   - **Exercise Benefits:** Boost mood through endorphin release and reduce stress levels.

   - **Routine:** Incorporate regular exercise into your routine for long-term mental health benefits.

3. **Sleep Hygiene**

   - **Quality Sleep:** Aim for 7-9 hours of sleep per night to support cognitive function and emotional resilience.

   - **Routine:** Establish a consistent sleep schedule and create a relaxing bedtime routine.

4. **Stress Management**

   - **Techniques:** Practice mindfulness, meditation, deep breathing, or yoga to reduce stress levels.

   - **Support Systems:** Seek social support and engage in activities that promote relaxation and enjoyment.

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### Section 4: Incorporating NeoLife Products into Your Routine

1. **Consultation and Guidance**

   - **Distributor Support:** Consult with a NeoLife distributor for personalized recommendations based on your health goals.

   - **Product Usage:** Follow recommended dosages and integrate NeoLife products into your daily routine for optimal mental health support.

### Section 5: Research and Evidence

1. **Scientific Studies**

   - **Omega-3 Fatty Acids:** Research supports the role of EPA and DHA in improving mood disorders such as depression and anxiety.

   - **Vitamins and Minerals:** Studies indicate that deficiencies in certain nutrients can affect mental health outcomes.

### Conclusion

NeoLife products can play a valuable role in supporting mental health when used as part of a holistic approach that includes nutrition, physical activity, sleep, and stress management. By prioritizing mental well-being and incorporating NeoLife supplements into your routine, you can enhance cognitive function, mood regulation, and overall quality of life.

### References

1. **Sustainable Fashion**: Sustainable fashion emphasizes eco-friendly and ethically produced clothing. This movement includes the use of organic materials, recycled fabrics, and fair labor practices, aiming to reduce the industry's environmental footprint and promote social responsibility.

2. **Streetwear Influence**: Streetwear has significantly impacted mainstream fashion, blending casual, comfortable clothing with high-end design. Originating from skate and hip-hop cultures, it features bold graphics, oversized fits, and limited-edition releases, creating a unique blend of luxury and urban style.

3. **Gender Fluid Fashion**: Gender fluid fashion challenges traditional gender norms by offering clothing that is not strictly categorized as male or female. This trend promotes inclusivity and self-expression, allowing individuals to choose pieces based on personal style rather than societal expectations.

4. **Vintage Revival**: Vintage fashion continues to make a strong comeback, with many seeking unique, timeless pieces from past decades. This trend not only offers distinctive styles but also supports sustainability by reducing waste and the demand for fast fashion.

5. **Tech-Integrated Clothing**: The integration of technology into fashion is an emerging trend, featuring smart fabrics and wearable tech. Innovations include clothing with built-in fitness trackers, temperature control, and even garments that can change color or pattern, merging functionality with style.

American women have played a pivotal role in shaping the nation's history, culture, and societal norms. From the early days of the republic to the modern era, their contributions span across various fields, including politics, science, literature, and activism. This essay explores the diverse experiences and achievements of American women, highlighting their resilience, creativity, and influence.

### Early American Women: The Foundations

In the colonial period, women were primarily confined to the domestic sphere, responsible for household chores and child-rearing. Despite these limitations, women in early America exhibited remarkable resilience and ingenuity. They managed farms, businesses, and households, often stepping into roles traditionally held by men when necessary. Figures like Abigail Adams, who famously advocated for women’s rights in her letters to her husband John Adams, exemplify the early seeds of feminist thought in America.

### The 19th Century: A Time of Change

The 19th century marked significant progress for American women, particularly in education and activism. The Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, was a groundbreaking event that launched the women's suffrage movement. The convention produced the Declaration of Sentiments, which outlined the rights women should be entitled to as citizens.

Education also saw advancements, with institutions like Mount Holyoke College (founded in 1837) providing higher education opportunities for women. Prominent educators like Mary Lyon, who founded Mount Holyoke, emphasized the importance of women's education in fostering social change.

### The Early 20th Century: Suffrage and Beyond

The early 20th century was a transformative period for American women, culminating in the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, which granted women the right to vote. Leaders like Susan B. Anthony, Alice Paul, and Carrie Chapman Catt were instrumental in this achievement. The suffrage movement not only secured voting rights but also ignited broader discussions about women’s roles in society.

Post-suffrage, women continued to break barriers. During World War II, women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, filling roles left vacant by men who went to fight. This era gave rise to the iconic image of "Rosie the Riveter," symbolizing women's economic power and contributions to the war effort.

### Mid-20th Century: The Feminist Movement

The mid-20th century saw the emergence of the feminist movement, which sought to address systemic gender inequalities. Betty Friedan’s 1963 book, "The Feminine Mystique," challenged the traditional roles of women and sparked widespread activism. The formation of the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966 further propelled the feminist agenda, advocating for equal rights, pay equity, and reproductive freedom.

Prominent figures like Gloria Steinem, Shirley Chisholm, and Angela Davis became the faces of this movement, each contributing in unique ways. Steinem’s journalism and activism brought attention to women's issues, while Chisholm’s historic run for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1972 broke racial and gender barriers. Davis's work highlighted the intersection of race, gender, and class, emphasizing the need for a more inclusive feminist movement.

### Late 20th Century to Present: Continued Strides and Challenges

From the late 20th century to the present, American women have continued to make significant strides while facing ongoing challenges. In politics, figures like Sandra Day O’Connor, the first female Supreme Court Justice, and Hillary Clinton, the first woman to secure a major party’s presidential nomination, have shattered glass ceilings.

The rise of the #MeToo movement in the late 2010s marked another critical moment, bringing widespread attention to issues of sexual harassment and assault. This movement, started by activist Tarana Burke, empowered countless women to share their stories and demand accountability from perpetrators and institutions.

In the realm of science and technology, American women have also made remarkable contributions. Pioneers like Grace Hopper, a computer science innovator, and Katherine Johnson, a mathematician whose work was crucial to NASA's space missions, have paved the way for future generations of women in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics).

### Cultural Contributions

American women have also left an indelible mark on culture, from literature and arts to sports and entertainment. Writers like Toni Morrison and Maya Angelou have provided profound insights into the African American experience and broader human condition, while artists like Georgia O’Keeffe and Frida Kahlo have challenged traditional perceptions of art and femininity.

In sports, trailblazers like Billie Jean King and Serena Williams have not only achieved extraordinary success but have also advocated for gender equality and social justice. King’s famous "Battle of the Sexes" match in 1973 and Williams’ outspoken stance on racial and gender issues have inspired countless athletes and activists.

### Intersectionality: The Diverse Experiences of American Women

It is essential to recognize the diverse experiences of American women, shaped by intersecting identities of race, ethnicity, class, and sexual orientation. Women of color, for instance, have faced compounded challenges but have also demonstrated immense strength and leadership. Figures like Ida B. Wells, a journalist and civil rights activist, and Dolores Huerta, a labor leader and co-founder of the United Farm Workers, highlight the critical roles played by women of color in American history.

The LGBTQ+ movement has also seen significant contributions from women, such as Marsha P. Johnson and Sylvia Rivera, who were instrumental in the Stonewall riots and the subsequent fight for LGBTQ+ rights. Their activism has helped pave the way for greater acceptance and equality for LGBTQ+ individuals.

### The Future: Ongoing Efforts and Emerging Leaders

Looking ahead, American women continue to confront challenges such as the gender pay gap, underrepresentation in leadership roles, and reproductive rights issues. However, there is also a strong sense of progress and optimism. Young leaders like Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez in politics, Malala Yousafzai in education advocacy, and Greta Thunberg in environmental activism are inspiring a new generation to continue the fight for equality and justice.

### Conclusion

American women have been central to the nation’s development and continue to shape its future. From the early advocates for suffrage to modern-day leaders in various fields, their contributions are vast and varied. While challenges remain, the resilience, creativity, and determination of American women ensure that they will continue to drive progress and inspire future generations. The story of American women is one of perseverance, innovation, and the unyielding pursuit of equality, reflecting the broader narrative of Am30erica itself.

British women have significantly shaped the course of the nation’s history, culture, and society. Their influence spans across various domains, including politics, science, literature, and social reform. This essay delves into the multifaceted roles and achievements of British women, highlighting their contributions, struggles, and the evolution of their status over time.

### Early History: Medieval and Renaissance Periods

In medieval Britain, women's roles were largely confined to the domestic sphere, governed by strict societal norms. However, some women managed to break these boundaries. Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen consort of France and England, was a powerful political figure in the 12th century, influencing the politics of both nations and playing a key role in the Crusades.

The Renaissance period brought a slight shift in women's roles, particularly among the nobility. Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603), one of the most iconic figures in British history, ruled with remarkable skill and political acumen. Her reign, known as the Elizabethan Era, is often regarded as a golden age in English history, marked by the flourishing of English drama and the seafaring prowess that led to the defeat of the Spanish Armada.

### The 18th and 19th Centuries: Enlightenment and Early Feminism

The 18th century saw the beginning of the Enlightenment, which gradually changed perceptions about women's roles in society. Mary Wollstonecraft, a pioneering advocate for women's rights, published "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" in 1792. This seminal work argued for the education of women and their inclusion as rational beings in society, laying the groundwork for later feminist movements.

The Industrial Revolution brought profound changes to British society in the 19th century. Women began to enter the workforce in larger numbers, although they often faced harsh working conditions and low pay. Social reformers like Elizabeth Fry, a Quaker philanthropist, worked tirelessly to improve conditions for female prisoners and workers, highlighting the social inequalities faced by women.

### The Victorian Era: Progress and Paradox

The Victorian era (1837-1901) was a time of both progress and paradox for British women. Queen Victoria herself, the era's namesake, was a powerful figure, yet her reign was marked by a strict moral code that emphasized a woman's place in the home. Despite this, the period saw significant advancements in women's rights and education.

The 19th century witnessed the formation of numerous women's organizations advocating for social reforms. Florence Nightingale, known as the founder of modern nursing, revolutionized healthcare with her work during the Crimean War and her efforts to establish nursing as a respected profession. Her impact extended beyond healthcare, influencing public health policies and women's education.

Education became more accessible to women during this period, with the establishment of institutions like Bedford College (1849) and Girton College (1869), which were among the first to offer higher education to women. These developments were instrumental in challenging the prevailing notion that women were intellectually inferior to men.

### The Early 20th Century: Suffrage and World Wars

The early 20th century was a period of significant political activism and change for British women. The women's suffrage movement gained momentum, with suffragists and suffragettes fighting tirelessly for the right to vote. Leaders like Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, were at the forefront of this struggle, employing both peaceful protests and militant tactics to draw attention to their cause.

The outbreak of World War I (1914-1918) brought about a temporary halt to suffrage activities, but it also created new opportunities for women. With men fighting on the front lines, women took on roles traditionally reserved for men, working in factories, driving ambulances, and serving as nurses. Their contributions during the war were crucial, and in 1918, the Representation of the People Act granted voting rights to women over the age of 30 who met certain property qualifications. This was a significant victory, although full suffrage was not achieved until 1928.

World War II (1939-1945) further expanded women's roles in the workforce and military. Women served in various capacities, including as codebreakers at Bletchley Park, where figures like Joan Clarke played vital roles in deciphering enemy codes. The war effort demonstrated women's capabilities and laid the groundwork for post-war social changes.

### Post-War Britain: Social Change and Feminist Movements

The post-war period brought significant social change and the emergence of second-wave feminism. In the 1960s and 1970s, the feminist movement gained momentum, advocating for equal rights in employment, education, and reproductive health. The publication of "The Female Eunuch" by Germaine Greer in 1970 became a landmark work, challenging traditional gender roles and advocating for women's liberation.

Legal reforms in the 1970s and 1980s further advanced women's rights. The Equal Pay Act of 1970 aimed to eliminate wage disparity between men and women, while the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 sought to prevent gender discrimination in employment and education. These legislative changes were significant steps towards achieving gender equality in Britain.

### The Late 20th and Early 21st Centuries: Continued Progress and New Challenges

The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen continued progress for British women, though challenges remain. In politics, figures like Margaret Thatcher, the first female Prime Minister (1979-1990), and Theresa May, the second female Prime Minister (2016-2019), broke through significant barriers, although their tenures also sparked debate about their impact on women's rights and social policies.

In the arts and literature, British women have made remarkable contributions. Writers like J.K. Rowling, whose Harry Potter series has become a global phenomenon, and Zadie Smith, known for her incisive explorations of race and identity, have achieved critical and commercial success. These authors, along with many others, continue to shape the literary landscape and influence cultural discourse.

The fight for gender equality continues in the modern era, with movements like #MeToo highlighting issues of sexual harassment and assault. British activists and public figures have been vocal in these discussions, pushing for greater accountability and systemic change.

### Intersectionality and the Diverse Experiences of British Women

It is essential to recognize the diverse experiences of British women, shaped by intersecting identities of race, class, sexuality, and disability. Women of color, for instance, have faced compounded challenges but have also demonstrated immense strength and leadership. Figures like Doreen Lawrence, who campaigned for justice after the racially motivated murder of her son Stephen Lawrence, have brought critical attention to issues of race and discrimination in Britain.

The LGBTQ+ movement has also seen significant contributions from British women. Activists like Nicola Adams, the first openly LGBTQ+ boxer to win an Olympic gold medal, and Ruth Hunt, former CEO of Stonewall, have advocated for greater acceptance and equality for LGBTQ+ individuals.

### The Role of Women in Science and Technology

British women have made remarkable contributions to science and technology, often overcoming significant barriers. Ada Lovelace, regarded as the world's first computer programmer, worked with Charles Babbage on the Analytical Engine in the 19th century. Her visionary ideas laid the foundation for modern computing.

In the 20th century, Rosalind Franklin's work on the structure of DNA was crucial to the discovery of the DNA double helix. Despite not receiving the recognition she deserved during her lifetime, Franklin's contributions have been widely acknowledged posthumously, highlighting the often overlooked role of women in scientific discoveries.

More recently, women like Sarah Gilbert, who led the development of the Oxford-AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine, have demonstrated the critical role women play in addressing global challenges. Their work underscores the importance of supporting women in STEM fields and ensuring their contributions are recognized and valued.

### Cultural Contributions: Literature, Arts, and Media

British women have profoundly influenced literature, arts, and media. From the Brontë sisters and Jane Austen, whose works have become timeless classics, to contemporary authors like Hilary Mantel and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, British women writers have shaped literary traditions and cultural narratives.

In the arts, figures like Tracey Emin and Bridget Riley have made significant contributions to contemporary art, challenging traditional aesthetics and exploring complex themes of identity and experience. Their work continues to inspire and provoke, pushing the boundaries of artistic expression.

In media, British women have been influential as journalists, broadcasters, and filmmakers. Figures like Mary Beard, a renowned classicist and broadcaster, and Clare Balding, a prominent sports presenter, have made significant impacts in their respective fields, advocating for greater representation and diversity in media.

### Social Reform and Activism

British women have a long history of social reform and activism, advocating for various causes and driving significant social change. The suffrage movement of the early 20th century laid the groundwork for later feminist and social justice movements.

In the 1960s and 1970s, activists like the members of the Women's Liberation Movement campaigned for reproductive rights, equal pay, and an end to gender discrimination. These efforts led to significant legal reforms and shifts in societal attitudes towards gender equality.

Today, British women continue to lead social justice movements, addressing issues such as domestic violence, racial discrimination, and climate change. Activists like Caroline Criado Perez, who campaigned for the inclusion of women's achievements on British banknotes, and Greta Thunberg, a global climate activist with strong ties to the UK, exemplify the ongoing commitment to social change and justice.

### Education and Leadership

Education has been a crucial area of advancement for British women. From the establishment of women's colleges in the 19th century to the increased presence of women in higher education and academic leadership roles, education has empowered women to pursue diverse careers and contribute to various fields.

Figures like Malala Yousafzai, a Nobel Prize laureate and advocate for girls' education, and Mary Beard, a prominent scholar, highlight the importance of education

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Left-right from top: first female Mexican American author in English María Ruiz de Burton, 1887 picture of the initial boundary marking the U.S.-Mexico border, Texas Rangers during the 1910-1920 La Matanza, 1877 lynching of two Mexican-American men in California, civil rights leader Cesar Chavez, the Mexican Repatriation, the Great American Boycott
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Mexican American history, or the history of American residents of Mexican descent, largely begins after the annexation of Northern Mexico in 1848, when the nearly 80,000 Mexican citizens of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico became U.S. citizens.[1][2] Large-scale migration increased the U.S.' Mexican population during the 1910s, as refugees fled the economic devastation and violence of Mexico's high-casualty revolution and civil war.[3][4] Until the mid-20th century, most Mexican Americans lived within a few hundred miles of the border, although some resettled along rail lines from the Southwest into the Midwest.[5]

With the border being established many Mexicans began to find more creative ways to get across. In the article Artificial Intelligence and Predicting Illegal Immigration to the USA the statistic that "more than half of undocumented immigrants in the USA enter the USA legally and overstay their visas" (Yektansani). This happened all throughout the timeline.

In the second half of the 20th century, Mexican Americans diffused throughout the U.S., especially into the Midwest and Southeast,[6][7] though the groups' largest population centers remain in California and Texas.[8] During this period, Mexican-Americans campaigned for voting rights, educational and employment equity, ethnic equality, and economic and social advancement.[9]

Spanish period

The Santa Barbara Mission, established in 1786
Spanish entry into what is now the United States southwest began in 1540, when Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, his 230 Spanish soldiers, 800 Indigenous Mexicans, and three women marched into the Rio Grande valley.[10] Soon after, Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo led the first expedition into Alta California in 1542, when he landed in modern-day Santa Barbara.[11] There are reports that the explorer Marcos de Niza entered Arizona in 1539, but scholars have cast doubt on his fabled exploration for the Seven Cities of Gold.[12]

Full-scale Spanish colonization of the Southwest did not begin until 1598, when the Spanish government, under pressure from the Catholic Church to Christianize the Coahuiltecan peoples of the Rio Grande Valley, selected Juan Oñate to cross the Rio Grande and establish a permanent settlement in San Juan Pueblo, near present-day Espanola.[13] Rumors of hidden gold and silver ores in New Mexico circulated in the lead-up to the Oñate settlement, but none were ever found in the region.[14] The focus remained on religious conversion.

The first Spanish missions in Texas were founded in the 1680s around present-day San Angelo, El Paso and Presidio, near the New Mexico settlements. In the early-1680s, however, conflict emerged in New Mexico, as the Pueblo people rebelled against the Spanish occupation.[15] Spanish colonization nevertheless persisted, and in 1690, new missions were built in East Texas by Alonso de León after the Spanish discovered the French had been encroaching into the territory.[16] In Arizona, the first Spanish settlements were founded in 1691 by the Italian Jesuit missionary Father Eusebio Francisco Kino.[17] California's first permanent Spanish settlement wasn't established until 1769, when the Presidio of San Diego was founded by Father Junipero Serra and his accompanying Spanish soldiers.[18] This marked the beginning of the Mission system, an era infamous for its brutality toward Indigenous peoples.[19]

The Spanish period ended in 1821 with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba, which officially ended the Mexican War of Independence.[20]

Mexican period

Don José María Estudillo, patriarch of the Estudillo family of California, served twice as commandant of the Presidio of San Diego.
The Mexican period of the U.S. southwest lasted from 1821 until 1848. The First Mexican Republic (1824-1835) had difficulties maintaining control over the region.[21] Sparsely populated and far from the economic and political center in Mexico City, the northern territories of Alta California, Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico, and Tejas were now free to engage in economic exchange with American traders, a practice which had been barred under the Spanish Empire. This newfound freedom resulted in the development of strong economic and social ties between the economic elites of Tejas, Alta California, and the United States.[22]

Mexico's Constitution of 1824 guaranteed the equality of all Mexicans regardless of race. This had significant consequences in Alta California. In 1824, the Chumash of Santa Barbara coordinated a rebellion against the Mission system, protesting the inhumane conditions they continued to experience under the Jesuits.[23] Simultaneously, the elites of the state, including the Vallejos, Alvarados, and Peraltas, urged for the total secularization of Mission lands. These agricultural families understood that if the Missions were secularized, the churches' large land-holdings would be distributed through land-grants by the regional government.[24] The Mexican government eventually acquiesced, and the Mission system was abolished through the Secularization Act of 1833.[25] As a result, the large land-holdings of the Missions were distributed through grants to the state's wealthiest families, including the Vallejos, Alvarados, Peraltas, Carillos, de la Guerras, and Picos.[26] The California neophytes, rather than being freed, became laborers on the Ranchos the Californios created. These ranchos were compared to Plantations, and the indigenous laborers were often "treated worse than slaves".[27]

Pío Pico, a Californio ranchero and the last Mexican governor of Alta California
During this period, California and Texas were flooded by Anglo American businessmen.[28] These migrants were welcomed into the region, and intermarriage between U.S. men and Mexican women was common practice, as it was a way to secure business loyalties through familial bonds.[29] Yet the continual flood of Americans into the Northern territories grew into an ever-larger issue for the Mexican government. In 1835, less than 14 years after Mexico's independence from Spain, American ranchers in Tejas revolted against Mexico and declared themselves the Republic of Texas.[30] Mexico's President Santa Anna led an army to put down the filibusteros, but after initial victories at The Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna's army surrendered defeat on April 21, 1836.[31] The Republic of Texas was never recognized as a sovereign state by the government of Mexico, which refused to recognize the treaties signed by Santa Anna, as he was a hostage when he signed them.[32] In the new Republic of Texas, Tejanos faced severe educational and economic discrimination.[33] Meanwhile, Mexico struggled to maintain its hold on political stability following the rebellion in Texas. In fact, the nation went through eighteen Presidential administrations from 1836 to 1845.[34]

In 1845, newly elected U.S. President James K. Polk, aware of the lingering instability in Mexico and eager to expand the United States to the Pacific Ocean, propositioned Mexico to purchase Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México.[35] The offer was flatly rejected by the Mexican government. Polk responded by moving U.S. troops, led by Zachary Taylor, into the Nueces Strip to provoke the Mexican Army into attacking the U.S. in order to get Congress to declare war.[36] Taylor set up camp in a disputed border territory and refused to leave, even after repeated warnings from the Mexican government.[37] After several skirmishes in the disputed zone, the U.S. Congress declared war on May 13, 1846.[38]

Mexican–American War
Main articles: Mexican–American War and Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Conflict and battles

U.S. battalion in Saltillo
The Mexican–American War of 1846–48 would prove one of the most consequential events for Mexican Americans in United States history. In 1846, U.S. general Stephen W. Kearney marched into New Mexico, where he faced little resistance from the Mexican residents of Santa Fe.[39] He installed local elite nuevomexicanos as the head of the provisional military government, which largely placated the residents of the territory.[40] In his first public speech to residents, he proclaimed the forthcoming equality of an American regime, claiming that, "El fuerte, y el debil; el rico y el pobre; son iguales ante la ley ... protegeré los derechos de todos con igualdad" ("both the strong and the weak, the rich and the poor ... everybody is equal before the law and will be protected by the same equal rights").[40]

New Mexico at first accepted the United States' military occupation without resistance, but within a year of Kearney's annexation of the territory, there was a widescale uprising.[41] Nuevomexicano Pablo Montoya and Taos Puebloan Tomás Romero together led the 1847 Taos Revolt, which resulted in the execution of Charles Bent, Taos sheriff Stephen Lee, Judge Cornelio Vigil, Bent's brother-in-law Pablo Jaramillo, the attorney J. W. Leal, and a young boy named Narciso Beaubien.[42] The U.S. military moved quickly to quash the revolt, and the fighting ended in New Mexico after the Nuevomexicanos' subsequent defeats in the Battle of Red River Canyon, the Battle of Las Vegas, and the Battle of Cienega Creek.

Battlefield during the U.S.-Mexico War (April 18, 1847)
In California, residents also fought the American army. In 1847, Californios staged battles throughout Southern California against the American conquest, including the Battle of Los Angeles and the Battle of San Pasqual (present-day San Diego). The United States Navy, believing that cutting off supplies to the Californios would ensure their defeat, implemented blockades along the Pacific Coast and Gulf of Mexico. As a result of these actions, the Navy's Pacific Squadron subsequently conquered Monterey, San Francisco, and San Diego, virtually guaranteeing victory for the U.S. in California.[43] The war ended on September 8, 1847, when Winfield Scott took control over Mexico City in the Battle for Mexico City. The U.S. and Mexico soon after entered negotiations for conditions of surrender.[44]

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

Lands ceded to the U.S. through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
On July 4, 1848, the United States and Mexico ratified the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which formally ended the war.[45] Under the conditions of defeat, Mexico also ceded more 525,000 square miles of territory.[46] The treaty guaranteed full citizenship for all former-Mexican citizens who requested it, as well as formal U.S. citizenship to all who remained in the U.S. territories for one full year after the signing of the treaty.[47] The full text of the treaty also included Article X, a provision which would have guaranteed rights to all holders of Mexican land-grants.[48] Fearing that Article X would give Tejanos too much protection over their land, the U.S. Congress quietly removed it from the final version, claiming that it was "redundant".[40] The law of the treaty guaranteed the "treaty citizens" full rights to their land if they were able to prove ownership, but the ability to prove ownership proved difficult.[49]

Furthermore, the treaty was signed without any formal legal guarantees that all Mexican citizens would be treated as citizens under U.S. law. Under the Constitution of 1824, all Mexicans, regardless of their race, had gained recognition as citizens, yet the United States, under the Naturalization Act of 1790, only recognized "white persons" as eligible for citizenship through naturalization.[50] The treaty thus legally classified Mexicans as "white" in order to allow them U.S. citizenship, yet this was applied only to the Spanish Mexican elite, mestizos, and assimilated Indigenous peoples.[51] Without explicit legal protection, all unassimilated and autonomous Native Americans in the new territories were thereby subjected to prior United States' case law relating to "Amerindian" tribes.[52]

Early-American period

José Francisco Chaves, territorial representative for the New Mexico Territory

Angustias de la Guerra, a Californio author who played an important role in defending women's property rights in the California Constitution.
The early-American period in the U.S. southwest was a period marked by violence and land loss. Under the terms of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, all Mexicans were granted formal citizenship rights as American citizens, yet widespread dissatisfaction emerged amongst the Mexican Americans.[53] Despite the treaty pledges of full and equal citizenship, rampant discrimination and violence were immediate and widespread.[54]

Realizing the potential dissatisfaction which the former Mexicans would face as American citizens, Mexico's president José Joaquín de Herrera issued a recolonization plan in August 1848, which promised economic resources and land for any former-Mexican who returned to Mexico.[55] The commission hired three commissioners to recruit repatriates. Father Ramón Ortiz y Miera, the New Mexico commissioner, encouraged resettlement by criticizing the inferior status of the "treaty citizens".[55] Such arguments had a strong resonance for the former Mexicans, as twenty-five percent of the country's Mexican American population repatriated after the war.[55]

Yet, the United States, despite guaranteeing the rights of former Mexicans to return to Mexico, developed legal arguments in order to institute formal barriers against this resettlement movement.[55] The U.S. Secretary of War George W. Crawford even claimed that repatriation was prohibited. Because New Mexico served as the primary buffer between American settlers and indigenous groups, the U.S. believed it was in their best interest if the treaty citizens remained in the U.S. to maintain a "civilized" presence in the region and protect against Native encroachment.[40]

Society

A vaquero in San Antonio, Texas
In 1850, the United States census counted approximately 80,000 Mexican treaty citizens living across California, Texas, and New Mexico.[56] New Mexico was the largest United States territory at the time, with around 61,547 inhabitants, about 95% of whom were former Mexican citizens.[57] The majority of the Nuevomexicanos lived in rural communities with populations of fewer than 1,000 people. According to the 1850 census, the three most common occupations held by Nuevomexicanos were farmer, laborer, and servant.[57]

In South Texas, Tejanos lived in a three-tiered society. At the top were the landed elite, who owned huge ranchos, many of which had been granted by the Spanish colonial empire and turned into haciendas.[58] The elite retained their economic dominance through cattle ranching.[58] Small landowners occupied the second rung of the South Texas economic and social ladder.[58] These landowners lived in one-room adobe houses and spent most of their time caring for their horses and cattle.[58] Finally, South Texas had a third lower class composed primarily of peóns, vaqueros, and cartmen. Peóns had a status above slaves in antebellum Texas but below that of free men.[58] Peóns worked at the direction of the patróns—planting and harvesting crops, herding goats, digging wells, and doing any sort of manual labor necessary. They lived in tiny one-room jacales, huts with walls of mud or any other material available and thatched roofs.[58] Anglo migrants to Texas believed the jacales were evidence of the Tejanos' "sub-human" and "primitive" nature.[59]

A Pomo woman at the Mendocino Rancho in California
In California, native-born californios mostly lived in small farming and ranching communities in the south. The two largest cities in 1850 were Los Ángeles, with a population of 3,500, and Santa Barbara, where 1,185 people lived.[60] While elite Californios, such as Pablo de la Guerra and Luis María Peralta, held political and economic power in the state, they represented only 3 percent of the population in 1850.[61] The vast majority of landed Californios were subsistence farmers who based their livelihood on their small plots of land. In the southern coastal regions, business-ownership and manual labor were also common occupations for general Californios. For the Indigenous peoples of California, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo's failure to ensure full citizenship and protections had dire consequences. They were subjected to a systematic genocide, funded by the state of California.[62] The California Genocide killed around 90% of California's Native population during the early-American period, clearing the way for full-scale Anglo colonization.[63]

Government

José Manuel Gallegos, delegate from the Territory of New Mexico to the U.S. House of Representatives
Over time, the social, economic, and legal position of the Spanish Mexicans diminished, largely through political disenfranchisement and large-scale land loss. These two processes were facilitated through the elimination of political, linguistic, and property rights. In two decades, Anglo Americans seized complete control over the apparatuses of political power across the U.S. Southwest.

José Manuel Gallegos was sworn into Congress in 1853 as the first nuevomexicano territorial representative to Congress. He spoke only Spanish, which was not a problem for his first two terms. After he successfully ran for reelection in 1856, however, his bilingual opponent Miguel A. Otero, contested the election results.[64] Otero claimed Gallegos' inability to speak English disqualified him. Gallego made an impassioned self-defense in Spanish on the House floor, where he protested the "disappointment" he felt from the "sneers" of his colleagues.[65] Nevertheless, Otero's bid was successful, and he replaced Gallego as the territorial representative of New Mexico.[66]

California's first U.S. senator, John C. Frémont, introduced legislation for the federal government to arbitrate land claim settlements.[67] After the removal of Article X from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty citizens were stripped of any formal protection of their land rights.[68] After gold was discovered at Sutter's Mill in Coloma, California in 1848, a massive migration flooded the state, sparking the Gold Rush. By 1852, the population of California had grown from 8,000 in 1848 to 260,000.[69] These gold miners were largely landless and asserted ownership over California lands. The California Land Act of 1851, also known as the Gwin Act, after California senator William M. Gwin, created a Presidentially-appointed commission to settle disputed claims between the landholders and Anglo miners.[70]

Land

The Sanchez Adobe, part of the Rancho San Pedro, purchased by U.S. General Edward Kirkpatrick.
In California's post-war years, land proved to be the most contentious and sought-after commodity. The California Land Act of 1851 established a commission to determine the validity of Spanish and Mexican land grants.[71] In order to prove ownership over the property, landowners needed to both provide evidence of the initial grant, as well as submit proof they had made "structural and pastoral" improvements to the land.[40] If they could not, Anglo squatters were free to claim ownership if they had "improved the land", a contentious claim which was often difficult to disprove.[72] Additionally, because many of the initial Spanish and Mexican diseños" grants were vague, merely describing the natural boundaries of the property, contestations over the boundaries of ranchos were difficult for the Californios to prove.[73] All documents submitted in support of a claim also needed to be translated into English. Some firms, like Halleck, Peachy & Billings, gained popular reputations as "friends to the Mexicans" for helping the Californios navigate the new American court system, but most land lawyers used the situation to their advantage, drawing out the cases and charging exorbitant fees for their services.[74]

Rancho Petaluma, which was subdivided and sold by Mariano G. Vallejo to pay for his attorneys' fees.
In most instances, land claim cases often proved simply too expensive for most Californios to litigate. While the majority of cases were ultimately ruled in favor of the Californios, the average wait-time for a case to be resolved was seventeen years.[75] During that time, most Californio families were forced to sell portions of their property to pay their attorneys' fees.[76] In addition, all land commission hearings were held in San Francisco, which created an additional and expensive barrier for Southern California landowners.[77] Mexican American landowners, in general, faced often insurmountable odds in proving ownership of their lands, which some argue was the intent of the convoluted system.[74] Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo wrote, "It requires a lot of work and money that I don't have to locate [possible witnesses], and afterwards to pay for notarized affidavits and English translations for each."[40]

Some Californios, however, attempted to use their positions of influence and power to fight against the legal discrimination. Pablo de la Guerra, a Santa Barbara landowner, asserted his political influence as a state senator and then lieutenant governor to vocally critique the American legal system, which treated Mexicans as a "conquered and inferior race".[40] De la Guerra complained that the testimony of white people was taken more seriously in the court system than that of Mexicans; he said, "A disgraceful distinction between white testimony and ours was indelicately paraded."[40] De la Guerra would have to fight even to maintain his right to hold political office; the landmark case People v. de la Guerra decided that despite charges otherwise, De la Guerra could hold political office in the United States.[78] Nevertheless, Anglos came to dominate the political and economic landscape of California, as not even one Mexican family retained their wealth in the early-American period.[79]

Rancho Agua Caliente in Fremont, California, which was subdivided and purchased by Leland Stanford.
In Texas, land grants were never subject to a federally legislated commission. Because Texas had attained statehood in 1845, it retained jurisdiction over the entirety of its border regions and thus claimed exemption from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.[80] The Texas state government thus took the matter of land grants into its own hands, when governor Peter H. Bell appointed William H. Bourland and James Miller to determine the validity of Spanish and Mexican land holdings in the state.[81] At its first hearing in Webb County, the Bourland-Miller Commission faced significant opposition from the local Mexican American landowners, who claimed that the commission had been established in order to seize the property of Tejanos and take away their full rights.[82] Miller and Bourland were able to win over the landowning elite of the Laredo area, however, by conducting an "impartial" proceeding, which resulted in all the Tejano families retaining their landholdings.[83] In the rest of the state, however, the commission was less favorable to the land-owning claims of the Tejanos. In areas of Southwest Texas, fewer than half of all land grants were recognized as legitimate by the commission, and many of the ones which were recognized as legitimate were already owned by Anglo Texans.[82]

Violence

Two Mexican American men lynched in Santa Cruz, California
In addition to using legalistic maneuvers to seize economic and political control, American settlers also used physical violence as a tactic to control the conquered Mexican American population. In California, Mexican Americans were driven out of their homes, forced out of mining camps in gold-rich areas, barred from testifying in court, and gradually segregated into barrios.[84] There was resistance to this violence, as men like Tiburcio Vásquez turned to banditry to resist the domination of the Anglos.[85] As a method to keep Mexicans in their place, the American settlers lynched Mexicans. Between 1848 and 1860, at least 163 Mexicans were lynched in California alone.[86]

Between 1848 and 1879, Mexican Americans across the United States were lynched at an unprecedented rate of 473 per 100,000 of population. Most of these lynchings were not instances of "frontier justice"— out of 597 total victims, only 64 were lynched in areas which lacked a formal judicial system.[86] The majority of lynching victims were denied access to a trial while others were convicted in unfair trials. Mexican Americans had no avenues for justice in the early-American period. As a result, many of the folk heroes of this period were considered to be outlaws: robbers, social bandits, and freedom fighters.[87]

In Texas, Mexican Americans also resisted the violence of the U.S. settlers. Juan Cortina began the First Cortina War in 1859 when he shot the Brownsville town Marshall, Robert Shears, for brutalizing Cortina's former employees.[88] Cortina raided and occupied the town with a squad of armed men. They held the city for several months, until they were attacked by a joint effort between the Texas Rangers and U.S. Army, led by John Ford and Samuel Heintzelman. The final battle was fought in March 1860, when Cortina was defeated.[89]

Late-19th century
Civil War
See also: Hispanics and Latinos in the American Civil War

Cpt. Rafael Chacón of the Union New Mexico Volunteers
Mexican Americans played a major role in the American Civil War (1861-1865). Texas, which was home to a significant portion of the nation's Mexican American population, seceded from the Union and joined the Confederate States of America in February 1861. In the Arizona and New Mexico territories, many elite Mexican American families held views sympathetic to the Confederacy.[90] In New Mexico, wealthy Mexican American crop-farm families openly supported the slave-owners of the South, perhaps due to their own reliance on the forced labor of Native Americans.[90]

Across the country, Mexican Americans felt resentment toward the U.S. because of the ethnic discrimination they experienced after the Mexican American War. The result was a mixed dispersion of support and opposition toward the United States. In New Mexico and California, support among Mexican Americans was split.[90] Many wealthy landowners in southern New Mexico supported the Confederacy, while most northern New Mexicans fought for the Union Army.[90] In California, Union support tended to be stronger in Northern California, while many Mexican Americans in Southern California leaned toward the Confederacy. Nevertheless, California remained in the Union.[90]

Rear Admiral Cipriano Andrade, a third engineer who served the Union
The Confederates, however, believed that opening a route to California would aid their cause. In summer 1861, John R. Baylor led the Confederates into Mesilla and declared the southern portion of New Mexico as the Confederate Territory of Arizona.[91] He then marched into Tucson and declared Southern Arizona the second district of the Arizona Territory.[92] In response to this aggression, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Henry Connelly - an Anglo politician who married into a Mexican American family - as the territorial governor of New Mexico.[93] Inspiring confidence amongst the Nuevomexicanos, the Union army was soon filled by Mexican Americans. The New Mexico units, known as the New Mexico Volunteers, were led by Brigadier General Diego Archuleta, Lt. Col. Manuel Chávez, Lt. Col. Francisco Perea, Col. José Guadalupe Gallegos, J. Francisco Chaves, and Cpt. Rafael Chacón.[94] This massive Mexican American army was able to destroy the Confederate hold on New Mexico by March 28, 1862, when Lt. Col. Manuel Chávez and his troops destroyed the Confederate supply train on Glorieta Pass and forced the Confederate soldiers to abandon the field.[95] Often called the "Gettysburg of the West", the Battle of Glorieta Pass effectively ended the Confederates attempts to take over the Western United States.[96] With the Confederates' surrender of the Territory, Mexican Americans from California were responsible for clearing out all Confederates supporters, including French imperialists who entered the U.S. during Maximilian's rule in Mexico.[90]

A Tejano Union soldier
As the last Confederate stronghold of the Southwest, Texas played a major role in Civil War battles. Wealthy Tejano ranchers, such as Santos Benavides, were the strongest Texas supporters of the Confederacy.[97] Nevertheless, many working class Tejanos fought for the Union army, as they had no interest in living in a social system predicated on unfree labor.[90]

Some Tejanos, such as Antonio Ochoa, had fought against the Texas Confederates from the time of secession. In 1861, Ochoa and a group of 40 men marched to the Zapata County courthouse and sought to prevent the town officials from swearing their allegiance to the Confederacy.[98] Ochoa and his men were immediately attacked by Confederate troops and forced to flee into Mexico. There they met and recruited Juan Cortina, who'd been forced out of Texas at the end of the First Cortina War.[90] Ochoa and Cortina together launched multiple military and economic attacks in South Texas, targeting supply lines, and even assassinating a Confederate county judge.[99] After each attack, they fled back to the safety of Mexico, waited for a short time, and then moved back into Texas for their next attack. This continued until Ochoa was executed by the brother of Santos Benavides.[90]

The final battle of the U.S. Civil War was fought in Texas. One month after Robert E. Lee's surrender at Appomattox in April 1865, Union forces marched toward Brownsville.[100] Tejano Confederates responded near the mouth of the Rio Grande and attacked the Union soldiers.[101] While the Confederates won this final victory, they were the ultimate losers of the war. All told, an estimated 20,000 Latino soldiers fought during the American Civil War.[102]

Reconstruction era

San Miguel, New Mexico in 1873
Despite the significant contributions of Mexican Americans in the American Civil War, the community faced a resurgence of discrimination in the Reconstruction era. In the 1870s, the New Mexico Territory saw a massive influx of Anglo-American settlers and land speculators.[103] The Territory legislature, fearing a Gold Rush-style land grab, petitioned Congress for protections.[40] In their 1872 memorial to Congress, the New Mexico legislators argued for a change in federal land laws, which stipulated that in the case of a dispute, the owners of the land must present evidence of their original land grant in both English and Spanish. The legislators argued this provided an undue burden to Nuevomexicanos, since in the territory, "very few ... understand the English language."[40] As migration increased over the course of the decade, the legislature issued more memorials, stressing the need for a Board of Commissioners to settle disputed land claims.[40]

Romualdo Pacheco is the only Mexican to serve as Governor of California since the United States conquest of California.
In Texas, disputes between Tejanos and white Americans resulted in open racial conflict. The Skinning Wars, also known as the Second Cortina War, erupted in the 1870s.[104] After the Civil War, Texas ranchers found themselves with a massive surplus of cattle, and this resulted in a precipitous drop in the price of beef. The cost of cowhides, however, remained relatively high. Because of the high price of hides, disputes soon emerged over mavericks, which, in this period, were often left to grange on the open range. These disputes resulted in "skinning raids", where young Mexican men would round up disputed herds of cattle and skin them all at once. In retaliation, white Americans in South Texas organized "vigilance committees", which quickly gained notoriety for their violent tactics.[105] In Corpus Christi, the Anglo vigilance committee raided Tejano ranches, where they would kill every Mexican male, burn down all their buildings, and force any survivors across the border to Mexico.[106] Texas Ranger Leander H. McNelly, a former Confederate, imposed punishments against the Tejanos he believed were responsible for the "raids", formally ending the race war.[107]

José Mauro Luján, a San Elizario resident and participant in the San Elizario Salt War of 1877
In West Texas, violent ethnoracial tensions exploded by 1877. In September of that year, San Elizario District Judge Charles Howard sought to charge collection fees from Mexicans, Tejanos, and Tiguas when they harvested from local salt beds.[108] The residents were outraged by the fees, as the salt beds had been considered a public resource for many generations.[109] After Howard arrested two residents who tried to collect salt without paying, the residents revolted against Howard. Known as the San Elizario Salt War, this revolt resulted in the death of Howard and four other white Americans.[110] In response, the white residents of San Elizario called upon the Texas Rangers, who, along with the U.S. Army, suppressed the rebellion and reasserted Anglo power in the region.[111]

Further south, Richard King continued to actively consolidate the King Ranch in the late-1870s, usually through violent and coercive tactics directed against his Tejano ranchero neighbors.[112] In 1878, one newspaper commentator complained that King's neighbors "mysteriously vanish whilst his territory extends over entire countries".[113] King, however, did not work alone. As his wealth grew, so did his political influence, and the territorial consolidation of Texas ranch land was made possible through the Texas Rangers. The Rangers in this period took violent measures against Tejano ranch owners to scare them into selling their land. In fact, the Rangers were known popularly in the late-1870s as los riches de la Kineña, an allusion to the belief they acted as King's private security force.[114]

Gilded Age

Apache men on the Southern Pacific Railway near the Nueces River, Texas
The 1880s for Mexicans Americans was a period of substantial change, marked especially by the emergence of the Southern Pacific Railway. In El Paso, the Southern Pacific reached the city in 1881, at which point it birthed an immediate economic and industrial revolution, as new industries emerged in mining, smelting, and construction.[115][116] The economic boom was felt throughout the U.S. Southwest and Northern Mexico, and it brought new national and transnational migrants into the region.[117] In addition to Mexicans entering the U.S. from Mexico, Chinese laborers came from San Francisco, African Americans fled from the Jim Crow South, and European Americans came from the East Coast. The influx of new capital and immigrant labor into the region helped transform Texas from a barren terrain into a hub of international commerce, and El Paso emerged as the region's primary economic hub and an international commercial depot.[118] Nevertheless, racial violence continued.[119] Mary Jaques, a British tourist who spent two years in Central Texas in the 1880s, wrote that the murder of Tejanos "carried a sort of immunity with it", as Mexicans appeared to be "treated like a dog, or, perhaps, not so well".[120]

Initial monument marking the Mexico–United States border
Migration into the United States in this period was also soon complicated by racial restrictions. For the first time in its history, the U.S. barred an entire national-origin group from immigrating when it passed the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882.[121] This caused difficulties at the Mexico–United States border, since the Act officially excluded Mexicans of Chinese descent from entering the U.S. as well.[122] "Chinese Inspectors" were hired by the United States Customs Service to inspect immigrants at ports of entry in the Southwest.[123] While official U.S. policy was to deport all ethnic Chinese immigrants to China, migration policies were slightly revised for Chinese Mexicans, who were deported to Mexico instead, if they held Mexican citizenship, had lived most of their lives in Mexico, or were married to Mexican nationals.[124] This "Chinese inspection" force would grow into the U.S. Border Patrol.[125]

María Ruiz de Burton, a Mexican American author
These continued indignities suffered by Mexicans and Mexican Americans did not go completely ignored, however. In 1885, María Ruiz de Burton, a Californian Mexican-American, published The Squatter and the Don, a novel set in 1870s San Diego County, where the fictional Amaro family clashed with esquatas, Anglo Americans who "improved" the Amaro family ranch in order to lay legal claim to the land.[126] Considered the United States' first female Mexican-American author, Maria Ruiz de Burton had been politicized through her personal experiences in California after the Mexican American War.[127] Before the publication of her novel, she wrote to her cousin, "It cannot be denied that the Californians have reason to complain. The Americans must know it; their boasted liberty and equality of rights seem to stop when it meets a Californian ... And now we have to beg for what we had the right to demand."[128] The publication of Burton's novel coincided with several other important developments in California for Mexican Americans. The decade witnessed the official dismantling of Spanish usage in official government documents,[129] around the same time the Gilded Age practice of voter suppression emerged to disenfranchise African American peoples from having a say in the functions of government.[130] For Mexican Americans, in general, the Gilded Age was a period of abrupt economic change, political disenfranchisement, and demographic displacement. While there was significant immigrant labor entering the Southwest from Mexico during this period through the railroads, it was dwarfed by the tidal wave of Anglos moving West from New York and other ports of entry. While the 1880s brought major changes, the coming years would emerge as a retrenchment of racial animosity.

Rise of Juan Crow

Group of Mexican Americans on the plaza in Mesilla, New Mexico, c. 1890s
If the 1880s represented a period of massive cultural and economic change for Mexican Americans in the U.S. Southwest, the 1890s were marked by renewed racial conflict and social unrest. In El Paso, which experienced a massive influx of white American migrants to the region after the completion of the Southern Pacific railway line, there was a widespread retrenchment of racial animosity.[131] Interracial marriage, which had theretofore been tacitly allowed in some parts of Texas, became a crime increasingly targeted by Texan officials.[132] Throughout the state, a new code of racial relations and series of ordinances worked to create segregated racial neighborhoods.[133] These laws targeted Native Americans, black Americans, Asians, and Mexican Americans. They have been described as Juan Crow, the rough equivalent to the Jim Crow laws emerging in the South. In El Paso, Mexicans Americans were demonized as ignorant, and therefore both ineligible and unworthy of the vote. White Texans also frequently characterized them as "foreigners", despite their U.S. citizenship.[131] One El Paso newspaper claimed Mexicans were "foreigners who claim American citizenship but who are as ignorant of things American as the mule."[131]

The Lugo family in Bell Gardens, California, c. 1890s
In the 1890s, the railroad and mining industries continued to expand. These industries needed massive pools of labor to fill new jobs, many of which were filled by immigrants from Mexico.[134] Immigrants entering the United States came from remote regions of Mexico, seeking relief from the increasingly brutal Porfiriato.[135] The Texas Mexican Railway had connected the U.S. and Mexico in 1883, and this railway allowed for an increasingly integrated transnational transportation system between the two countries.[136] Meanwhile, for elite Mexican American families who continued to undergo litigation involving disputed land claims, the federal government finally offered them some relief in 1891. The Court of Private Land Claims was created to settle disputes, providing a federally funded interpreter for the court.[137] The New Mexico Territory, which had been urging such a commission for years, fell under the jurisdiction of the court, along with Colorado and Arizona. And though the Court did confirm some Nuevomexicano land grants, many were left unconfirmed.[40]

Catarino Garza, Texan revolutionary.
In Texas, the massive economic and political inequalities occurring sparked a resurgence of racial warfare. In September 1891, Catarino Erasmo Garza led an army of hundreds of Tejanos back and forth across the Rio Grande in a revolt against both Mexico and the United States, known as the Garza Revolution.[138] Adopting the slogan "libres fronterizos" which were stitched onto their hats, the army, known as the Garzistas, was a multiclass movement, consisting of lower-middle-class professionals, poor farmers, landless ranchers, and wealthy landowners, with both Mexicans and Mexican Americans (as well as a few Anglo Americans who had married into Mexican families).[138] The military response to the Garza Revolution was extremely bloody, and set precedent for both Texas police, as well as the U.S. Army for domestic warfare.[138] Leading the suppression was U.S. Army captain John Gregory Bourke, who said, "The cheapest thing to do is to shoot them down wherever [they are] found skulking about with arms in their hands, and to burn down some of the ranchos which gave them shelter."[139] Bourke, who had fifteen years experience in Arizona during the Apache Wars, led his armies to destroy all Tejano communities believed to support Garza.[139] The U.S. Army burned down ranches, threatened families with lynching, searched without warrants, and stole guns, horses, and money from Tejano families.[139] Complaints were filed with state and federal officials, but the atrocities were ignored. The Garza Revolution was suppressed by 1893, at which point Catarino Garza was forced into exile, along with the last of his scattered supporters.[139]

The Herrera brothers in New Mexico
In New Mexico, there was also significant ethnic violence in the 1890s. It began when the Santa Fe Ring, a group of powerful Anglo lawyers and land speculators, succeeded in dispossessing thousands of Mexican Americans of lands they used for community farming.[140] The Ring moved quickly to fence the lands to prevent anyone from accessing the areas. In response, a group called Las Gorras Blancas initiated a lawsuit against the Ring arguing for community access to the Las Vegas Land Grant, but the judge sided with the Santa Fe Ring.[141] The Gorras Blancas, outraged at the injustice, promised military retribution. In 1890, they began their campaign of vigilante justice, cutting down the new fences, destroying farm equipment, and burning buildings throughout San Miguel, Santa Fe, and Mora counties.[142] Believed to have been led by the three Herrera brothers, Juan José (known as El Capitan), Pablo, and Nicanor, the Gorras Blancas held between 700 and 1,500 members at its height.[143] In 1890, the Blancas declared themselves the defenders of "the rights of all people in general, and especially the rights of poor people".[143] The territorial Governor Lebaron Bradford Prince responded by declaring them a violent "mob",[143] and organized officials to clamp down on the group. Four dozen Gorras Blancas were indicted, but none were convicted.[144] Finally, in Arizona, racial violence also erupted in 1896 with the Yaqui Uprising, when a group of Yaqui, Pima, and Mexican revolutionaries fought against the U.S. and Mexican armies in an early attempt to overthrow the increasingly despotic President Porfirio Díaz.[145]

1900s

A Tejano youth, c. 1900
In the first decade of the 20th century, the population of Mexicans in the United States grew significantly. The first railroad connecting Mexico City to the Mexico-United States border was completed, which allowed for greater ease of movement from the interior of Mexico to the United States.[146] Migration increased especially after a severe recession hit Mexico in 1906 and then a depression from 1908 to 1909.[147][148] The Mestizo migrants were met with animosity in the United States, as Anglo Americans in the Southwest began warning about the dangers of non-white immigration.[131] As the number of Mexican immigrants increased, nativist broadsides emerged in the Progressive Era which asserted the poor living conditions of the immigrants - such as substandard housing, high infant mortality, lack of sanitation, and high crime rates - were indicative of flaws within the Mexican character, rather than a failure on the part of the United States to assist the immigrants.[131] In Chihuahuita, Texas, complaints about the "hordes of Mexicans" pouring over the border were widespread; however, the need for Mexican traquero labor, farmworkers, and miners meant that enforcement against Mexican laborers remained lax.[131]

Domestic politics

Beet farm in Oxnard, California
For U.S.-born Mexican-Americans, the first decade of the 20th century was defined largely by legalistic discrimination, including the creation of segregated schools for Mexican American children (where they were severely underserved and mistreated),[149][150] mysterious and unexplained "jail suicides", and a significant number of lynchings.[151] Some Mexican Americans, however, took a stand against these violent conditions. In 1903 near Oxnard, California, a group of Mexican American beet farmworkers teamed up with their Japanese-American coworkers to demand better wages and working conditions.[152] The Oxnard strike of 1903 is one of the first recorded instances of an organized strike by Mexican Americans in United States history.[152] The Mexican and Japanese American strikers raised the ire of the surrounding white American community. While picketing, one laborer, Luis Vasquez, was shot and killed, and four others were wounded.[153] While the strikers were able to leverage the press from the shooting into securing some of their demands, the success of the strike proved short-lived after Samuel Gompers and the American Federation of Labor refused to grant the strikers an official union charter due to the racial makeup of their group.[154] Incidents of racial conflict also flared up in areas such as Clifton, Arizona, where, in 1904, mobs of Anglo men raided the homes of Mexican American families to kidnap their children, so as to save the children from the "suffering" of being raised in Mexican homes.[155] In 1906, the Supreme Court refused to hear what became known as the "Arizona Orphan Abduction" case, thereby tacitly allowing the children to be legally adopted and raised by their kidnappers.[156]

During the 1900s-1930s, Mexican Americans utilized the court systems to assert and defend their rights as citizens in various ways. Mexican Americans faced challenges regarding land ownership and property rights due to discriminatory practices and racial prejudice. They often turned to the courts to fight against land dispossession, unlawful evictions, and discriminatory property laws.[157]Through legal proceedings, they sought to assert their ownership rights and protect their property interests.[158]Mexican Americans also engaged in legal battles to challenge racial discrimination and assert their civil rights. They filed lawsuits against discriminatory practices in public accommodations, transportation, and voting rights.[157]These legal efforts played a role in advancing civil rights for Mexican Americans and challenging systemic racism. In "West of Sex: Making Mexican America, 1900-1930," author Pablo Mitchell provides insights into how Mexican Americans engaged with the legal system to recognize and assert their rights as citizens.[157]

International relations

Yaqui men lynched by the Porfiriato.
In these years around the turn of the century, Mexico intensified its campaign against the Yaqui of Sonora, who were fighting against the forced assimilation programs of the Porfirio government.[159] The federal Mexican government initiated a program of forced resettlement, deporting Yaqui rebels to work as slave laborers on the henequen plantations in Yucatán.[159] In response, many Mexican Yaquis fled to the United States. The U.S. Army, led by Captain Harry C. Wheeler, negotiated with the Mexican government to deport any Yaqui found in Arizona back to Mexico.[131] The U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor went a step further and ordered the detention and deportation of all Yaquis who entered the United States without documentation. Somewhere between 10,000 and 15,000 Yaquis were deported to Mexico, where they were met with murder, lynching, and enslavement by the Porfiriato.[159]

Jew Sing, from Mexico, deported from the U.S. for having Chinese ancestry
In the latter half of the decade, U.S. immigration officials worked to step up regulations at the Mexico-United States border. As immigration from Mexico to the United States increased around the turn of the century, nativists pushed to increase public health and public charge restrictions against potential migrants.[131] Widespread anti-Chinese sentiment also created a sense of hysteria in U.S. border towns. Unable to differentiate between Indigenous and Mestizo Mexicans and Mexicans of Chinese descent, U.S. immigration officials became increasingly concerned about Chinese Mexicans who entered the United States by wearing "traditional" Mexican clothes and speaking Spanish.[160] In 1905, T. F. Schmucker, Chief of the Immigration Bureau in El Paso, asserted that between 150 and 200 Chinese Mexicans were being held in detention in Juarez.[161] By 1907, U.S. immigration officials adopted even more stringent policies in order to prevent Chinese Mexicans from entering the United States; however, one immigration inspector named Marcus Braun, wrote, "How exceedingly difficult it is to positively state whether these are ... Chinamen or Mexicans."[131] In the lead-up to the Mexican Revolution, the number of immigrants entering the U.S. from Mexico increased dramatically, including the number of Chinese Mexicans. In 1909, the El Paso Times wrote, "There are a hundred 'Celestials' where there was one twenty years before ... every train brings a dozen or two to Juarez, all intent on getting across the border, and in the course of a few years hundreds of them have been taken off trains on the American side."[131]

1910s
Mexican Revolution
Main article: Mexican Revolution

Refugees fleeing the Mexican Revolution, heading to Marfa, Texas
The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) resulted from the increasing unpopularity of the 31-year-long brutal dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. Growing resistance to Diaz resulted in a power struggle among competing elites, which created the opportunity for agrarian insurrection.[162] Wealthy landowner Francisco I. Madero challenged Díaz in the 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, revolted under the Plan of San Luis Potosí.[163]

Armed conflict broke out in northern Mexico, led by Madero, Pascual Orozco, and Pancho Villa, and with support from portions of the middle class, the peasantry, and organized labor,[164] Díaz was forced out. In the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez, Díaz resigned and went into exile. New elections were held in 1911, and Madero was elected, taking office in November. Opposition to his regime then grew from both the conservatives, who saw him as too weak, and from former revolutionary fighters, who saw him as too conservative.

In a period in February 1913, known as the Ten Tragic Days, Madero and his vice president Pino Suárez were forced to resign and then assassinated. The counter-revolutionary regime of General Victoriano Huerta came to power, backed by the United States and its ambassador Henry Lane Wilson,[165] business interests, and supporters of the old order. Huerta remained in power until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces, including the forces of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. Wealthy landowner Venustiano Carranza formed the "Constitutionalist" political faction, and with military forces under the leadership of Álvaro Obregón, played an important part in defeating Huerta.[166] When the revolutionaries' attempt to reach political agreement failed, Mexico plunged into a civil war (1914–15). Carranza emerged as the victor in 1915, defeating the Villistas and forcing Zapata back to guerrilla warfare.[167] Zapata was assassinated in 1919 by agents of President Carranza. Many scholars consider the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 as the end point of the armed conflict.

Camp for refugees of the Mexican Revolution
For the United States, the Revolution proved profoundly consequential, as the violence unleashed by the conflict led between 600,000 and 1,000,000 refugees to flee into the United States.[168] Along the border, residents in American cities feared revolutionary fervor for land redistribution would inspire the poor and working classes in the U.S. to rise up against Anglo property ownership and domination.[139] The Texas governor made a formal request for U.S. troops to guard the border and keep the revolutionary ideals out of the United States.[139]

The border was effectively turned into a militarized zone. Barbed wire, spotlights, tanks, machine guns, and airplanes were brought in to surveil Mexican residents and maintain "order" in the borderlands.[169] Around sixty-five hundred U.S. troops were stationed in El Paso, where they were ordered to keep Villistas from entering the city and keep watch over the Mexican refugees and Mexican Americans in the city. U.S. consular agent George Carothers wrote, "A large portion [of the] Mexican population of El Paso have arms ... which will create [a] dangerous situation here ... The possibility exists of them starting something serious."[170] In January 1916, white Americans took matters into their hands and started a "race riot" in the majority-Mexican neighborhood of Chihuahuita,[171] attacking every Mexican refugee and Mexican American they found in the streets.[172]

Refugees of the Mexican Revolution standing among tents, possibly in Marfa, Texas, ca. 1910
While Mexican American historians have continued to debate the long-term consequences of the Mexican Revolution, one of its most long-lasting legacies was the mass dislocation of entire communities from Mexico to the United States.[131] Men, women, and children fled on foot, traveled by wagon and horseback, and by railroad to enter the United States as refugees.[136] In the aftermath of Pancho Villa Expedition, one press report described the "hundreds" of refugees fleeing to the United States in the course of a single day: "Following the troops were hundreds of refugees. Prosperous Mormon families rode in comfortable farm wagons or in small motor cars. Some Mexicans rode in carriages, on horses, mules, burros and on the motor lorries of the expeditionary forces while hundreds of them and Chinese residents from the evacuated region walked through the deep dust which had been made by the feet of hundreds of troops."[173]

Treatment in the U.S.

A Junta Patriótica club
Life in the United States was difficult and violent for Mexican refugees and Mexican Americans in the latter half of the Progressive Era. Reformers in the era believed that non-white people were "primitive" and biologically inferior.[174] The eugenics-influenced Dillingham Commission argued for drastic reductions in the number of immigrants to the United States,[175] while academics such as Charles Davenport claimed racial "deficiencies" were the root of violence and poverty.[176] This elite nativism had a direct translation on the ground, as refugees of the Mexican Revolution were regularly denied humanitarian aid. In one incident in 1914, refugees fleeing the violence of the revolution crossed into West Texas; in response, white Texans arrested the refugees and imprisoned them in Ft. Bliss.[139]

Most of the hundreds of thousands of Mexican refugees who fled to the United States during the Revolution settled in California and the U.S. Southwest. In Los Angeles, many of the resettled refugees lived in the historically Mexican American area of East Los Angeles.[177] State and local resources were thinly spread, and Mexican refugees and Mexican Americans were specifically targeted for exclusion from welfare programs.[178] Mexicans were left to fill pre-existing gaps in the American labor market, and colonias, or Mexican-majority neighborhoods, were established in Chicago, Kansas City, and Salt Lake City, as railroad companies were one of the main sources of employment.[179] The steel and automobile sectors drew Mexicans and Mexican Americans to Detroit, San Francisco, and Minneapolis, as well as farming in Oregon, Texas, and Southern California. In order to provide middle-class Mexicans with a sense of grounding in their new communities, consulates of the Mexican government in major cities organized a network of juntas patrioticas (patriotic councils) and comisiónes honoríficos (honorary committees) to celebrate Mexican national holidays and to express support for the Revolution. The juntas patrioticas proved incredibly popular, and were an early form of community organizing for the Mexican community in the United States.[180]

A Los Angeles Boys' home. These homes for orphaned and delinquent boys often targeted young Mexican and African American boys for sterilization.
Mexican Americans also faced a darker form of discrimination during the Progressive Era. In this period, several dozen states passed eugenics laws, outlining legal criteria for compulsory sterilization.[181] In California, eugenicists at public institutions like Sonoma State Hospital and Whittier State School began their sterilization programs in the 1910s.[182] These doctors believed that "dispositions" for poverty, crime, mental illness, disability, and violence were inheritable, and thus, anyone diagnosed as "insane", "feebleminded", or "epileptic" was unfit for "breeding".[183] They would thus be permanently sterilized in order to solve the nation's social ills. Recommendations for surgical sterilization were heavily influenced by eugenic prejudices regarding the biological inadequacy of poor and non-white people.[184] As a result, Mexican American men, women, and children were disproportionately sterilized in California. Many Mexicans immigrating to the United States struggled through their journey crossing borders because they hoped to find stability and better opportunities in this new environment. Although, this history portrays the beginning of Mexican immigration and how new events have continued to reoccur, whether being influenced by government issues or not.[185] By some estimates, Mexican Americans were between 40 and 60% more likely to be permanently sterilized than their white counterparts.[186] Progressive-era elites also passed severe Anti-miscegenation laws, as well as laws prohibiting "normal" individuals from marrying people with low-IQs, in order to "breed" a more healthy nation.[178] California's eugenic laws were the basis for Nazi eugenics.[187][188]

La Matanza de Texas
Main article: La Matanza (1910–1920)

Three Texas Rangers posing with the corpses of Mexican American men
The mid-1910s proved to be one of the most violent periods for Mexican Americans in Texan history. In the summer of 1915, a manifesto attributed to Mexican seditionists was discovered, entitled El Plan de San Diego.[189] The plan sought to overthrow American control over the entire borderlands through a panethnic "Liberating Army of race and people", which would include Mexicans and Mexican Americans, African Americans, and Japanese Americans.[190] The plan called for the expulsion of Anglos and the execution of all white American men over the age of sixteen years old.[191] The plan also called for burning bridges and derailing trains in order to disrupt federal, state, and local infrastructure. The initial steps of the plan were initiated through targeted attacks against prominent ranches.[192] On August 8, 1915, around sixty ethnic men raided the Los Norias headquarters of the Texas Rangers on the King Ranch.[193] The response to this raid and the discovery of the plan was swift and violent. The Texas Rangers launched an indiscriminate manhunt, killing every Mexican and Mexican American man they could find.[194] One Ranger wrote that the troops showed a "savage radical element" against the Mexicans.[139] Estimates range that at least 102 people were killed in the wake of this first incident.[195]

Texas Rangers smiling alongside the corpses of dead Mexican Americans
This event set off a wave of violence across South Texas, described by some as an "orgy of bloodshed" known as La Hora de Sangre (part of a broader period called La Matanza).[196] Texas judge James Wells estimated that in Hidalgo County and Cameron County alone, Texas officers and vigilantes executed between 250 and 300 men between the summers of 1915 and 1916.[139] Extralegal violence was enacted by white mobs, state police, and local deputies across Texas, and estimates of the dead range from 300 to several thousand.[197] Police often colluded with the vigilante mobs, and Mexican Americans were tortured, hanged, shot, beat, and burned alive.[198] Many of the known victims were adult men, though a few women, and some children, were murdered by the white mobs.[139] The executions often occurred in isolated and rural areas hidden from public view. Assailants almost never faced arrest, and grand juries refused to indict the accused, as in the case of Porvenir massacre.[199] Mexican Americans had no option but to organize their lives to avoid law enforcement or the white American community.[139]

Immigration policies
See also: Immigration Act of 1917, 1917 Bath riots, and Bisbee Deportation

Geraldine Portica, a transgender Mexican woman deported from the United States to Mexico in 1917
The nativism which had been growing in the United States for several decades grew even stronger in the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution. In January 1917, the United States passed the Immigration Act of 1917. This legislation severely curtailed immigration to the United States and marked a major turning point in U.S. immigration policy. The act introduced a literacy requirement, increased the "head tax" to eight dollars (a significant sum at the time), added new prohibited categories (including peoples with mental illness, as well as the "gender inverse", meaning all members of the LGBT community),[200] and extended the Chinese Exclusion Act to bar all Asian immigrants (except from Japan and the Philippines).[201] This act created a burden for Mexican immigrants, as the literacy requirements, head taxes, and restricted categories were applied vigorously.[202] In 1917, the U.S. Public Health Service also implemented invasive medical inspections at the border (where men and boys would be stripped naked and examined for "defective" anatomy - including large breasts or small genitalia - and sprayed with chemical agents to be "disinfected").[203] Outrage at these procedures resulted in the 1917 Bath riots.[204] Soon, agricultural interests in California and Texas, successfully lobbied Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson to create exemptions for agricultural laborers.[131] For all other immigrants from Mexico, the protocols remained in place.

With these new policies in place, nativists across the United States were emboldened to enact anti-Mexican violence. In one particularly infamous and egregious incident in Bisbee, Arizona, over 1,000 Mexican and Mexican American laborers were forcibly deported by an army of over 2,000 deputies in an incident known as the Bisbee Deportation.[205] The laborers, who were miners in the nearby copper mine, had been organized by the Industrial Workers of the World, a labor union, on June 26, 1917.[206] In response, Sheriff Harry Wheeler and his army of deputies rounded up and arrested over a thousand of the men on July 12, 1917, marching them to a waiting train.[207] The train carried the men to Columbus, New Mexico, where it left them in the desert without food or water.[208]

World War I

Marcelino Serna, an immigrant from Mexico, was one of World War I's most highly decorated men.
U.S. involvement in World War I lasted from April 6, 1917 until the war's end on November 11, 1918. During this time, approximately 200,000 Latino Americans fought for the United States.[209] The majority of these Latino servicemen were Mexican Americans.[209] Many of these men experienced discrimination in the service, and some went so far as to hide their Mexican ancestry to avoid prejudicial treatment.[210] Unlike African American servicemen, however, Mexican Americans did not serve in segregated units during World War I.[211] Even as white American servicemen harassed the Mexican American soldiers for their "barrio English", Mexican American soldiers proved decisive in several key skirmishes, including the Battle of Saint-Mihiel and the Meuse–Argonne offensive.[211]

David B. Barkley, one Mexican American man from Laredo, was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for scouting behind enemy lines in France. And Marcelino Serna, who immigrated to the United States from Mexico as a young man, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. During the war, Serna singlehandedly destroyed a German machine gun site in one battle.[212] Two weeks later, he took out 26 enemy soldiers, captured 26 more as prisoners, and successfully prevented his fellow American soldiers from executing the captured men.[212] Serna returned to the United States as the most decorated soldier from the state of Texas.[213]

1920s
Rise of the KKK
Jane Snyder at KKK services
Ku Klux Klan marching down Pennsylvania Ave., Washington, D.C

The Ku Klux Klan reached several million members and attained mainstream status in white America in the 1920s. This terrorist organization believed Mexican Americans represented a "threat" to the "purity" of the United States.
In the years after World War I, the rising tide of nativism continued to grow in the 1920s. The Second Ku Klux Klan was a new organization patterned after the original KKK of the 1860s. It was anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant[214][215] and taught that all Mexicans and Mexican Americans were "subhuman foreigners".[216] The KKK mounted an extensive campaign of violence across the Southwest.[216]

The KKK had a strong presence in Texas and California.[217][218] The organization had adherents in rural communities in both states,[219][220] and held major political control in large cities.[221][222] In Dallas, where the KKK gained control over the city's politics, it sought to completely close off the border with Mexico.[223] In San Diego, the KKK was led by many of the city's elite. According to Ernesto Galarza, a labor activist and professor, "Mexicans were seen as an endangerment to traditional American values. [Even the clergy] often ignored the Klan's abuses toward Latinos".[222] The KKK in Southern California regularly lynched, tortured, dragged, and murdered Mexicans and Mexican Americans. Mercedes Acasan Garcia, a refugee of the Revolution working as a maid in San Diego in the 1920s, stated, "Since they were ragged Wetbacks, nobody cared who they were and nothing was done about it."[222] The KKK was also extremely politically powerful in Los Angeles, and in 1928, the KKK senior member John Clinton Porter was elected mayor of the city.[224]

Colorado was another area with extensive Klan activity. During World War I, Colorado companies sought to fill labor gaps left by soldiers through recruiting refugees of the Mexican Revolution (who had arrived in the United States in large numbers during the 1910s).[225] As labor recruiters paid to relocate large numbers of refugees to Colorado, white residents became increasingly enraged at the presence of the "radical aliens".[225] During the First Red Scare of 1920, significant numbers of white Coloradans joined nativist and "one hundred percent American" organizations.[226] Despite these sentiments, corporations continued to recruit Mexicans. In 1921, John Galen Locke harnessed the intensifying anti-Mexican feelings and organized the KKK in Colorado.[227] By 1925, the KKK had emerged as the dominant political force in Colorado, running on campaigns of law and order and anti-Mexicanism. The KKK deliberately held rallies in cities with large Mexican neighborhoods.[225]

Johnson–Reed Act
See also: Emergency Quota Act and Immigration Act of 1924

U.S. border guard and Mexicans behind the border fence, c. 1920s
In the years following World War I, the United States nearly entirely shut out immigration from the rest of the world. In 1921, Congress passed the "Emergency" Quota Act of 1921, which set immigration levels to "3 percent of the number of foreign-born persons of each nationality" living in the U.S. as determined by the 1910 United States census.[228] This Act was meant to reserve most immigration quota slots to northwestern European countries, which received the largest number of the 350,000 total slots created.[229] Immigration restrictionists, however, were not satisfied, and U.S. Representative Albert Johnson and Senator David Reed responded by pushing for even stricter quotas.[230] The resulting Johnson-Reed Act reduced the quota from 3 percent to 2 percent, and changed the census base from 1910 to 1890, which meant that only people from West and North Europe could migrate.[231]

For Mexicans, however, the effect of the law was complicated, as the quota system applied only to countries outside the Western Hemisphere, meaning there were no caps on immigration from any Latin American country.[232] This lack of a quota for Mexicans was controversial amongst the U.S. nativist movement, who were outraged at the large numbers of Mexican immigrants entering the country - including thousands during the Cristero War (1926-1929).[233] Immigration restrictionists, who desired to limit the number of non-white people in the U.S., felt that immigration from Mexico, even when only to fill labor gaps, was dangerous to the nation.[234] One article in The Saturday Evening Post asked, "How much longer [are] we going to defer putting the Mexican Indian under the quota law we have established for Europe?"[235] The East Texas congressman John C. Box went so far as to state that Mexicans would lead to the "mongrelization" of white America.[236] In general, however, Mexican racial identity was contentious enough for lawmakers to avoid moving forward with increased restrictions. U.S. Secretary of Labor James Davis, wrote, "The Mexican people are of such a mixed stock and individuals have such a limited knowledge of their racial composition that it would be impossible for the most learned and experienced ethnologist or anthropologist to classify or determine their racial origin. Thus, making an effort to exclude them from admission or citizenship because of their racial status is practically impossible."[237] According to scholars of the period, however, most Americans at the time believed Mexicans' racial heritage was "impure".[161]

U.S. border guards check entering Mexicans, c. 1920
Even though Mexican immigration was never subjected to quota limits, U.S. immigration officials used increasingly stringent measures to limit entry. For itinerant laborers who lived in Mexico and worked in the United States, weekly disinfection mandates were regularized, and quarantine and "bath certificates" were required to be renewed weekly.[238] Then, in 1924, the U.S. Congress approved the creation of the Border Patrol, led by the previous chief "Chinese Inspector", Clifford Alan Perkins.[239][240] The Border Patrol began with headquarters in El Paso overseeing three district offices in Los Angeles, El Paso, and San Antonio. Beginning in the 1920s, visa controls and deportations became regular mechanisms to regulate Mexican immigration.[241] Finally in 1929, Congress passed the Aliens Act of 1929, known as Blease's Law, which turned undocumented entry into the U.S. a misdemeanor and re-entry a felony.[242] Up to that point, immigration violations were largely considered civil matters.[243]

Mexicans in Hollywood

Lobby card for the U.S. drama film Ramona (1928)
In the 1920s, Mexican entertainers entered American popular culture for the first time in U.S. history. Dolores del Río was an actress, singer, and dancer. Born and raised in Mexico, she and her husband left Mexico in 1925. Both were from upper-class families who were struggling in the aftermath of the Mexican Revolution.[244] She began her film career in Hollywood almost immediately upon her arrival. She had roles on a string of successful silent films, including Resurrection (1927), Ramona (1928) and Evangeline (1929). While del Río was proud and insistent of her Mexican heritage, she was nevertheless mostly cast in non-Hispanic white roles, usually appearing as the romantic interest of white actors. Many considered her the most beautiful woman in the world in the 1920s and early 1930s, and she is widely regarded as the first major female Latin American star in Hollywood.[245][246][247]

Doug Fairbanks and Lupe Vélez in The Gaucho (1927)
In the 1920s, another Mexican actress reached the heights of Hollywood stardom. Lupe Vélez attended high school in San Antonio, Texas as a teenager but returned to Mexico after her family lost their home during the Mexican Revolution.[248] The family struggled financially in those years, and Vélez moved to Mexico City to work in an FAL department store - then considered an upper-class symbol of modern global capitalism. Her breakthrough occurred when she appeared in a popular musical production in the city's revista theater.[248] After moving to the U.S., she made her first film appearance in a short in 1927. By the end of the decade, she was acting in full-length silent films and had progressed to leading roles in The Gaucho (1927), Lady of the Pavements (1928) and Wolf Song (1929). Vélez' roles were varied, though she often portrayed "exotic" and "foreign" women.[249]

Lobby card for the U.S. drama film Revenge (1928), starring Dolores Del Rio
Though Hollywood had two Mexican star actresses in the 1920s (and the male star Ramon Novarro), there was still controversy over the stereotypical depictions of Latin Americans in film. In the 1920s, Latin America was Hollywood's largest export market.[250] In Mexico, nearly 80 percent of all films screened were made in the United States. Nevertheless, Mexicans and other Latin Americans were often depicted on screen as lazy, barbaric, morally degenerate, or buffoonish.[251] Mexican Americans, already facing an onslaught of discrimination in other aspects of their everyday lives, were concerned that such depictions were contributing to the prejudicial treatment they were receiving in the United States. Spanish-language newspapers criticized Hollywood "greaser" films' depictions of Latin Americans and even called on the Mexican government to take a stand against Hollywood.[252] The Mexican government did launch an influence campaign, but its success was limited. According to one historian, "The Mexican immigrant community in Los Angeles used discussions about cinema to critique American racial and political ideologies."[253]

Labor issues

Mexican American workmen making adobe bricks at the Casa Verdugo, California
In the 1920s, Mexicans met the increasing demand for cheap labor on the West Coast. Mexican refugees continued to migrate to areas outside the Southwest; they were recruited to work in the steel mills of Chicago during a strike in 1919, and again in 1923.[254] Many found work on the assembly lines of automobile factories in Detroit, and in the meat plants of Chicago and Kansas City.[255]

Many also worked as agricultural laborers in farming valleys in the border states, such as Tucson in Arizona, the Rio Grande Valley in Texas, and most especially, the Imperial Valley in California. Anglo-Americans hired Mexicans and Mexican Americans to work in the region's year-round agricultural economy. Mexican farm laborers, along with African Americans, Filipino Americans, Japanese-Americans, and even Armenian Americans, Punjabi Americans, Native Hawaiians and Native Americans, were instrumental in California becoming the nation's top agricultural state. In this shift toward agricultural dominance, California relied on the cheap labor of Mexicans and Mexican Americans in a wide variety of fields. By the mid-1920s, California cotton farms were around five times larger than farms in the Deep South. This meant they needed large numbers of manual laborers, as well as technicians, since California farmers adopted tractors and picking machines at rates faster than any other region.[256] The ability of Mexican laborers to adapt to industrial farming was crucial to the state's success. Nevertheless, even as labor unions in the 1920s grew rapidly to protect workers, some mainstream organizations, such as the AFL, were blatantly anti-Mexican.[257] When Mexicans sought better working conditions, they often faced outright violence.[258]

Salastino Martinez (age 15) and Klementz Chavez killed in Walsenburg, Colorado, 1928
Some of the decades' most infamous labor disputes occurred in Colorado. In 1927, Mexican-American coal miners participated in a bloody coal strike in Colorado, walking out under the banner of the Industrial Workers of the World. Mexican-Americans in the southeastern part of the state, particularly from the Walsenburg, Pueblo, and Trinidad areas, took leadership roles in the 1927 strike, protesting for better and safer working conditions. Some mine owners in other parts of the state retaliated against the striking miners by refusing to hire any Mexican or Mexican American in their mines.[259] In Walsenburg and Trinidad, the mine owners went to more extreme measures to stymie the protests. Mine owners hired armed men to attack the Industrial Workers of the World's (IWW) Trinidad hall and Walsenburg branch halls. In Walsenburg, the men used a machine gun to attack the IWW hall, ultimately killing two union strikers, Salastino Martinez (age 15) and Klementz Chavez (age 41), on January 12, 1928.[260] Josephine Roche, president of the Rocky Mountain Fuel Company, invited the United Mine Workers of America to unionize her mines, so as to meet some of the strikers' demands without alienating other mine owners, who remained strongly opposed to the IWW.[261]

LULAC and activism

The first LULAC Convention, Texas, 1929
In 1929, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) was formed in Corpus Christi, Texas through the merging of several smaller Mexican American organizations.[262] It was one of the nation's first mainstream Mexican American political organizations and was formed largely through the efforts of Mexican American World War I veterans who were frustrated at the continued discrimination Mexican Americans faced in the United States.[263] Ben Garza served as the organizations' first president.[264] LULAC quickly developed into an influential middle-class civil rights organization with councils across the Southwest. Organization members tended to portray themselves as patriotic "white" Americans, and membership was restricted only to English-speaking U.S. citizens.[265] Like the NAACP at this time, LULAC believed an "educated elite" Mexican American leadership would guide the community as a whole toward a higher political and economic standing in the United States. Nevertheless, the organization focused mostly on issues such voter registration and poll tax fundraising-drives, aggressively waging legal campaigns against racially discriminatory laws and practices.[266]

Great Depression
Poverty

A Mexican family in Texas. The Great Depression hit communities of color hard.
The Great Depression started in the United States after a major fall in stock prices that began around September 4, 1929, and especially with the stock market crash of October 29, 1929, (known as Black Tuesday). The Depression had a major impact for the approximately one and a half million Mexicans and Mexican Americans living in the United States by 1930.[267] Agricultural work fell as one of the depression's first casualties.[161] As white Americans increasingly found themselves unemployed, they grew outraged at the fact that farmers in the Southwest employed Mexican and Mexican American laborers. They mounted pressure campaigns on government officials and employers to insist that only "citizens" be hired.[161] The campaigns were successful, and soon construction companies, stores, factories, and laundries fired their Mexican employees in favor of white Americans.[161] The Hoover administration explicitly blamed Mexicans for taking jobs away from "American citizens".[268]

Mexican American boy in San Antonio, Texas
When Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected president in 1932, there was hope he would provide relief to the suffering Mexican American communities across the United States. This did not materialize. While no New Deal program explicitly barred people by race or immigration status from receiving assistance, occupational status was used to exclude Mexican Americans from receiving Depression relief.[269] The Social Security Act of 1935, for example, barred agricultural and domestic workers from both social security benefits and unemployment insurance, which effectively excluded many African and Mexican Americans from this early social safety net.[270] At the local level, few Mexican migrant laborers received relief, since residency restrictions often required the applicant to have lived in the county for a set amount of time, which excluded migratory laborers.[269]

Two boys scavenging for food during the Great Depression in Texas
Without federal or local relief, many jobless Mexican American families adopted an itinerant life, traveling highways in search of work.[271] Some found temporary housing in U.S. Farm Security Administration (FSA) work camps, where Mexican American farm families finally received medicine, food, and housing. Because the widespread culture of anti-Mexican demonization in the U.S. had resulted in targeted violence against Mexican American communities, however, the FSA was forced to set up separate camps specifically for Mexican Americans in order "to create safe havens from violent attacks" from white Americans.[271] These segregated camps brought together Mexican American families from various communities, which provided them with the opportunity to organize and discuss many of the main issues of the day, including the harsh working conditions within the agricultural sector.[271] The familial connections developed in these camps would serve as a strong factor in farm labor movements later in the century.[271] Yet, while the FSA work camps did provide relief for some Mexican American families, many others had a very different experience in the Depression. In many cities, when a Mexican or Mexican American family applied for aid, they were sent to designated "Mexican Bureaus", where repatriation was discussed.[272][273]

Repatriation
Main article: Mexican Repatriation

From 1929 to 1936, around 400,000 Mexicans and Mexican Americans repatriated via trains, boats, and buses, some forcibly.
For several hundred thousand Mexicans and Mexican Americans, their lives in the United States during the Great Depression were unbearable - they lost their jobs, were largely denied federal or local relief because of their ethnicity, and faced vilification in politics and in the media as "stealing jobs from real Americans".[274] In addition to these factors, state and county officials across the U.S. began to threaten Mexican and Mexican American families who were seeking government aid with deportation.[275] At the same time, the Mexican government introduced a program to entice ethnic Mexicans back to the country with the promise of free land if they returned.[233] All of these factors - overwhelming poverty, the fear of threats from U.S. government officials, and the promises of the Mexican government - led many to leave the U.S. in a period known as the Mexican Repatriation.[276]

These repatriations, though often initiated under threats of deportation, were considered "voluntary", and thus few federal records exist to provide numbers of how many Mexicans left the country during the Depression.[277] Nevertheless, INS reported in 1931 that "large proportions" of the nation's Mexican population were leaving the country, and some estimates have concluded that between just November 1929 and December 1931, about 200,000 Mexicans left the United States.[277] While a large number willingly departed to Mexico, a significant number were explicitly pressured to leave through state and local repatriation programs.[278] These programs responded to the Depression's severe effects in Mexican and Mexican American communities by promoting deportation.[279]

Some scholars contend that the unprecedented number of deportations and repatriations between 1929 and 1933 was part of an "explicit Hoover administration policy",[280] and the manufactured climate of fear was meant to coerce Mexicans into self-repatriating.[281][282] In fact, local welfare workers did regularly collaborate with immigration officials to provide the names of ethnic Mexicans seeking Depression relief so they might be repatriated.[277] During the Repatriation period, local government and federal officials also collaborated in "street sweeps" and "full-scale paramilitary" raids in majority-Mexican neighborhoods to find undocumented migrants and to terrorize others in the community to repatriate.[279] In addition to welfare officials, charitable aid agencies worked with state and local governments to provide names of Mexican and Mexican American families seeking aid. Charities also sometimes provided money to pay for one-way tickets to Mexico.[283] In all, the INS formally deported around 82,000 Mexicans from 1929 to 1935, while the remaining 320,000 repatriated were considered "voluntary". Of the total number of people who left the United States during the Mexican Repatriation, around half were U.S. citizens.[280]

New Deal labor
See also: California agricultural strikes of 1933 and United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers of America

A Mexican melon picker of the Imperial Valley, unloading his bag during the depression
During the New Deal era, Mexican American labor unions made significant strides in organizing; however, they still often faced outright violence. In September 1933, the Cannery and Agricultural Workers' Industrial Union led a massive strike of cotton pickers in the San Joaquin Valley, California. One contemporary writer later described the mobilization of strikers as "an army of brown skinned people".[284] In response, the growers initiated an all-out war to avoid paying the strikers higher wages.[285] They began with a propaganda campaign, claiming the strike was being agitated by a radical-left "Communist menace",[286] rather than the workers themselves who were fighting against endemic low wages and horrific working conditions.[287] Next, the farm owners created armed militias.[284] One, Pixley's Farmers Protection Association, had 600 enrolled members.[284] The farm owners then went after local business owners in town, threatening dire consequences to any business which sold the strikers food. Then, the farmers evicted all striking pickers and their families from their homes, which were usually shacks on the cotton ranches.[284]

When the strikers still refused to break, news began to emerge of mysterious deaths in the cotton fields. The Mexican consulate sent a representative to Tulare County "to protect the interests of Mexicans".[284] However, this did not stop local welfare officials from denying the strikers' families food relief during the strike.[284] Law enforcement soon also stepped in to preserve "law and order", quickly deputizing an army of white locals and granting them "unlimited power".[284] The Mexican American strikers were then openly attacked, and three were killed - but their killers were soon released with all charges dropped.[288] Meanwhile, local and federal relief officials continued to deny the strikers any food relief, and soon scores of the strikers' children began to die from malnutrition.[284] The U.S. federal government finally stepped in, establishing an arbitration committee. By the end of October 1933, a compromise was reached and the strike was finally ended.[284]

The labor organizer Emma Tenayuca and her husband Homer Bartchy on their wedding day, January 1937
The San Joaquin Cotton Strike of 1933 received national media coverage at the time, much of it in favor of the farm owners. However, Latino American labor activists did make major strides in the 1930s. Luisa Moreno, a Guatemalan immigrant, became the first Latina in U.S. history to hold a national union office when she became the Vice-President of the United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers of America.[289] At the time, it was the seventh largest affiliate of the Congress of Industrial Organizations.[290] Another important labor leader during the Depression was the 21-year old Emma Tenayuca,[291] who was instrumental in one of the most famous conflicts of Texas labor history–the 1938 San Antonio pecan shellers strike at the Southern Pecan Shelling Company.[292][293] During the strike, nearly 12,000 workers at over 130 plants protested a wage reduction of one cent per pound of shelled pecans and inhumane working conditions by walking off the job.[291] Mexicana and Chicana workers who picketed were clubbed, gassed, arrested, and jailed. A photo of Tenayuca ran in Time magazine where she was called "the forefront of most of its civil commotions".[294]

Depression politics

U.S. Senator Dennis Chavez, the first Latino to serve a full senate term
Despite the intense anti-Mexican sentiment pervading the country in the Depression, the era also saw the first Mexican American senators in the history of the country. Sen. Octaviano Larrazolo was elected to the U.S. senate in 1928, but he died in office three months later.[295] Sen. Dennis Chávez first served in the United States House of Representatives from 1931 to 1935, until he was appointed to a full term in the U.S. Senate in 1934. When Chávez was sworn in, six senators allegedly stood abruptly, turned their backs to Chávez, and angrily left the chamber.[296] During his time in office, Senator Chávez was a major proponent of the New Deal, and he was at least partially successful at securing benefits for New Mexicans. What became known in New Mexico as the "Latino New Deal" was a rare extension of New Deal benefits to Mexican Americans.[297] In the state, newly funded education programs improved literacy rates, and vocational programs revived the production of Hispano craft goods like santero artwork, woven goods, and furniture.[296] WPA agents taught New Mexicans how to market their items to tourists.[296] Later, Senator Chávez became known for his civil rights advocacy, as he fought to expand notions of American citizenship.[298]

In 1935, a federal judge in New York upheld an immigration officer's decision to deny the naturalization petitions of three Mexicans on the grounds that they were not white, but instead individuals "of Indian and Spanish blood".[299] Whiteness, which had been a requirement for naturalized citizenship since 1790, remained so until 1940.[300] If the 1935 ruling had been upheld, it would have rendered the majority of Mexicans ineligible for citizenship.[301] President Roosevelt - who had only recently replaced American interventionist policies, such as the Roosevelt Corollary, with his own diplomatic approach of the Good Neighbor Policy - was concerned that denying Mexicans the opportunity to naturalize would hurt Mexico-U.S. relations.[302][303] He thus urged the State Department to "quiet the controversy", pressuring the judge to reverse the decision.[303] The Labor Department issued guidance to its border officials that "in all future cases, [Mexican] immigrants be classified as 'white.'"[304]

Josefina Fierro, a founder of El Congreso in 1938
In April 1938, Luisa Moreno and group of Mexican American labor activists, including Josefina Fierro, Eduardo Quevedo, and Bert Corona, organized the inaurural conference of El Congreso de Pueblos de Hablan Española in Los Angeles, an organization meant to promote a broad agenda of working class empowerment, civil rights, and Latino unity.[305] In their founding constitution, the organizers also endorsed the rights of Mexicans to live and work in the U.S. without having to fear coerced deportation.[306] El Congreso also never promoted assimilation,[307] in direct contradiction to other organizations like LULAC (which focused on the desegregation of employment, housing, education, and all public facilities).[308][309] El Congreso was notable for their early stands promoting immigrant rights despite the widespread culture of demonization occurring during the Mexican Repatriation. In fact, Moreno spoke to the American Committee for the Protection of the Foreign Born, critiquing the exploitation of Mexican workers, saying, "[Mexicans make] a barren land fertile for new crops and greater riches. These people are not aliens, they have contributed their endurance, sacrifices, youth, and labor to the Southwest."[128]

World War II era
World War II
See also: Hispanic Americans in World War II

Mexican American servicemen in World War II, taken between 1941 and 1944
The United States entered World War II against the Axis Powers on December 7, 1941 after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Several hundred thousand Latino men served in the U.S. military during the war, about 500,000 of whom were Mexican American.[310][311] Unlike their African American counterparts, who mostly served in segregated units, most Mexican American soldiers served in integrated units in World War II,[312] though recent research has discovered at least one unit composed entirely of Mexican Americans.[313][314] The majority of World War II Mexican American service members were second-generation Americans who had grown up in the anti-Mexican hysteria of the Great Depression. Thus, the transition for them into the role of an "American soldier" could at times be surprising. One man, Private Armando Flores of Corpus Christi, Texas, remembered the shock he felt the first time he was ever referred to as an "American soldier", because, as he recalled later, "Nobody had ever called me an American before!"[311] According to some scholars, the U.S. government made efforts during the war to address some of the domestic issues facing the Mexican American community.[315] These efforts were part of an overarching campaign to win broad domestic support for the war effort.[315] Perhaps not surprisingly, this new feeling of wartime social "inclusion" created a strong sense of patriotic pride within the Mexican American community.[311] On a single two-block stretch of Silvis, Illinois, 45 Mexican American boys and men volunteered to fight; it was dubbed in the press as "Hero Street".[316]

Ernest Gallego with first cousin, both serving in World War II
During the war, Mexican American soldiers gained renown for their bravery. At least eleven Mexican Americans received the Medal of Honor during the war.[311] One, Joe P. Martínez, who was a beet harvester before the war, led a strategically critical charge up a snow-covered mountain on Attu Island.[317] He died during the action, and became the first draftee to win the Medal of Honor posthumously.[318] Another, Silvestre Herrera, explained his single-handed attack on a Nazi hold, saying, "I am a Mexican-American and we have a tradition. We're supposed to be men."[311]

Perhaps the most famous Mexican American servicemen was Guy Gabaldon, an 18-year old from East Los Angeles, who had been adopted by a Japanese American family at the age of twelve. When his family was sent to an internment camp, Gabaldon joined the Marines.[319] He was sent to the Pacific theater and saw action in Saipan. In the Battle of Saipan, Gabaldon killed thirty-three enemy combatants, and then, using his ability to speak conversant Japanese, Gabaldon convinced the surrounded remaining soldiers to surrender.[320] The eight hundred Japanese soldiers surrendered peacefully,[321] and Gabaldon earned the nickname the "Pied Piper of Saipan".[322] Though he was recommended for the Medal of Honor, Gabaldon was instead awarded the Silver Star.[323] The 1960 film Hell to Eternity was based on Gabaldon and his life.[324]

Women's wartime labor

Rita Rodriguez, a woman from Ft. Worth, hard at work
Women played a hugely important role during World War II, entering the industrial workforce in record numbers to fill crucial manufacturing positions left empty by the departing soldiers.[325][326] Additionally, countless Mexican American women joined Women's Army Corps, WAVES, and other all-female auxiliary units in the military.[322] It is estimated thousands of Mexican Americans found jobs in the defense industries during the war, though they still often encountered anti-Mexican prejudice on the job market, despite Franklin Roosevelt's 1941 Executive Order 8802, which barred discrimination in defense industry hiring.[311][327] Nevertheless, the war's insatiable demand for labor ultimately overcame employers' reluctance to hire Mexican Americans. Soon, thousands of Mexican American women across the country had joined the workforce as a "Rosita the Riveter".[328]

Mexican American women at Friedrich Refrigeration
In addition to efforts on the formal job market, Mexican American women made significant material and moral contributions through the formation of wartime community organizations. These organizations aimed to support American troops abroad, but specifically the young Mexican-American soldiers from local barrios.[329] A few community projects consisted of cooperation between Mexican American and Anglo neighborhoods, yet the vast majority of Mexican American home front activities were organized separately from those of the white community.[330] One of these organizations, the Spanish-American Mothers and Wives Association of Tucson, Arizona, sought to roll bandages, raise money for a veterans center for after the war's end, and write letters to help the boys fight their "internal battle of loneliness".[329] The organization peaked at 300 members during the war.[331] Other organizations, such as Phoenix' Lenadores del Mundo, organized wartime festivals and collected rubber for the war effort, but also sought to fight against the still rampant racism and discrimination experienced by the community.[330]

Sleepy Lagoon murder
Main article: Sleepy Lagoon murder

Mexican American "gang" brought in for questioning regarding the murder
In late-1942, California Governor Culbert Olson, who was facing a tough re-election battle against future incumbent Earl Warren, sent a memo to Los Angeles County's law enforcement agencies, ordering them to launch a vicious campaign against the city's youth gangs.[332] Under these orders, the office of the Los Angeles County District Attorney decided to use the August 2, 1942 death of José Gallardo Díaz, a Mexican American youth, as a test case to launch the new war against juvenile delinquency by turning the investigation into a major media event.[332] In the weeks following Díaz' death, the LAPD launched mass raids in Mexican and African American neighborhoods, arresting more than 600 young men and women to be held in custody and interrogated.[333] The Los Angeles press hailed the arresting officers as heroes.[332] As a result of their often brutal interrogations of the adolescents, the police announced they had found the murderers: twenty-two alleged members of the 38th Street gang and two female accomplices.[334] The public discourse in California surrounding the arrest of the youths was viciously racist, and high-profile debates emerged whether Mexicans and Mexican Americans were "culturally, politically, intellectually, and biologically capable of living within a white, civilized, democratic society".[332]

The Sleepy Lagoon murder case acquittal, Los Angeles, October 1944
The resulting criminal trial, People v. Zammora (1942), is infamous for its fundamental denial of due process. Of the twenty-four charged youth, seventeen were indicted on murder charges and placed on trial.[335] The courtroom was small and, during the trial, the defendants were not allowed to sit near, or to communicate with, their attorneys.[336] None of those charged were permitted to change their clothes during the entirety of the trial by order of the presiding Judge Charles W. Fricke at the request of the district attorney.[337] Judge Fricke also permitted the chief of the Foreign Relations Bureau of the Los Angeles sheriff's office, E. Duran Ayres, to testify as an "expert witness" that Mexicans as a community had a "blood-thirst" and a "biological predisposition" to crime and killing, citing the supposed human sacrifice practiced by their Aztec ancestors.[338] After Judge Fricke's guilty verdict in January, the Mexican-American youths were imprisoned. The Mexican American community was outraged and several attorneys challenged Judge Fricke's decisions.[339] The famous journalist Carey McWilliams noted that a few months earlier, over 120,000 Japanese Americans were detained and interned in detention camps, and argued that there were common links between the Japanese-American internment and the anti-Mexican response to the Sleepy Lagoon case.[340] In October 1944, the state Court of Appeals unanimously decided the evidence was not sufficient to sustain a guilty verdict.[334] It reversed 12 of the defendants' convictions and directly criticized Fricke for his bias in and mishandling of the case.[341]

Zoot Suit Riots
Main article: Zoot Suit Riots

During the Zoot Suit Riots, U.S. Navy sailors beat and stripped over 150 Mexican American boys. The LAPD responded to the violence by arresting over 500 Mexican American teen boys and girls.
In the 1940s, Mexican American youth had grown up fully immersed in American popular culture, including films, music, and other media. When they came of age, these youth diverged from the expectations of both their parents and dominant society by using culture and fashion to undermine the norms of American segregation and white supremacy.[342] These teens developed their own music, language, and dress. For boys, called Pachucos, the style was to wear a flamboyant long coat zoot suit with baggy pegged pants, a pork pie hat, a long key chain and shoes with thick soles.[343][344] The style was meant to serve as a rebuke of American assimilation and war efforts to conserve materials like fabrics.[345] Meanwhile, girls, called Pachucas, wore black drape jackets, tight skirts, fishnet stockings and heavily emphasized make-up. For the Pachucas, participation in the movement was a way to openly challenge conventional notions of feminine beauty and sexuality, especially in traditional Mexican culture.[346][347][348][349] In both instances, the Zoot-suiters were considered un-American.[350]

This sentiment created issues in Los Angeles, where a new Navy base was installed in Chavez Ravine, a segregated Mexican American neighborhood of Los Angeles.[351] This brought over 50,000 service members into a largely Mexican neighborhood, many of whom were white and from areas with few Mexican Americans.[352] The sailors - who frequently walked through the Chavez Ravine neighborhood on their way to the bars in Downtown Los Angeles - would harass the Zoot-suited youth for their seemingly disrespectful attitudes.[353][354] As the anti-Mexican atmosphere surrounding the Sleepy Lagoon murder trial grew more tense over the course of 1943, minor attacks by Navy sailors against Mexican American boys became an almost daily occurrence.[354]

In June 1943, these tensions exploded in one of the worst race riots in the city's history. After a Mexican American boy raised his hand in a way that a sailor considered to be "threatening", the man and his friends attacked the boy.[354] This sparked a skirmish in the street, which ended quickly after the initial sailor had his nose broken.[355] That night, hundreds of sailors went into the neighborhood and attacked every Mexican American boy they could find.[356] For the next ten straight days, the Navy sailors went into Chavez Ravine, Downtown LA, and even East Los Angeles, dragging, beating, and stripping naked every Zoot suited boy out in public - some as young as twelve and thirteen years old.[357] The Los Angeles press cheered on the racist attacks, even printing guides on how to "de-zoot" a zoot-suiter.[358] The LAPD responded by joining the sailors, arresting hundreds of Zoot suiters, both teenaged boys and girls, and charging them with "disturbing the peace".[359] Progressive activists at the time, such as Carey McWilliams, blamed the riots on William Randolph Hearst's "proto-fascist" promotion of "anti-Mexican hysteria" during the Sleepy Lagoon murder trial.[360] Scholars, however, have focused on the complex social matrix operating within Los Angeles at the time, and interpret the riots as an example of the "social cleavages" within the segregation-era U.S.[361]

Postwar activism

Macario Garcia, receiving the Medal of Honor from President Harry Truman. A month later, he was refused service at a Texas cafe because of his ethnicity. He refused to leave the cafe and was arrested.
World War II formally ended on September 2, 1945 after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the final surrender of Japan to the Allied powers. For the millions of returning veterans, the adjustment back to civilian life was difficult. For African and Latino Americans, in particular, there was significant difficulty transitioning from being war heroes and liberators in Europe, back into second-class citizens in the race-segregated United States. African Americans had sought to address some of these discrepancies with their Double V campaign;[362] meanwhile, Mexican Americans began their own fight for civil rights at home. The historian Thomas A. Guglielmo writes, "Patriotic sacrifice and service only further fired Mexicans' and Mexican Americans' determination to gain first-class citizenship."[363] Returning Mexican Americans challenged discrimination and segregation in many ways, including by sitting in "whites only" seating sections in town theaters, demanding service at white restaurants, and attempting to enter segregated public pools.[364] In one notorious instance, Macario Garcia received the Medal of Honor in a ceremony at the White House, and less than a month later, he was refused service at the Oasis Cafe in Richmond, Texas because of his ethnicity.[365] He refused to leave the cafe, the police were called, and Garcia was arrested and charged with "aggravated assault".[366] In Arizona, the governor named August 14, 1945 in honor after another Medal of Honor recipient, Silvestre Herrera. Coverage of the event was marred, however, by the governor's need to request Phoenix businesses to take down signs barring Mexicans.[367]

Many Mexican Americans were denied the full benefits of the GI Bill. As a result, many Mexican American families remained in cycles of poverty.
Discrimination against returning Mexican American veterans hurt the prospects of the entire Mexican American community. While medical, financial, and educational benefits from the GI Bill helped lift millions of Anglo-American families into the growing American middle-class, the application of the bill's benefits to African and Mexican American veterans was uneven.[368] As a result, the Mexican American community did not ever gain full economic and political equality in the postwar era.[315][329] Rather than being simply exclusionary, however, the GI Bill had several important failings which resulted in its discriminatory outcomes.[369] The bill offered loan guarantees, yet few banks honored such guarantees to non-white veterans, and for those who did, restrictive racial covenants meant that African and Mexican American veterans were only able to live in redlined neighborhoods, where property values often remained low.[370][371] Furthermore, many Mexican American veterans complained about consistently late tuition disbursements, which forced them to drop out of their job training and university programs, and reports of "outright racism within the VA" were common.[369] Contemporary scholars have found that overall, the GI Bill "did not profoundly alter the occupational profile of all Mexicans ... and its immediate impact on upward mobility among families ... was inconsistent".[372]

Hector P. Garcia, World War II veteran, civil rights advocate, and founder of the American G.I. Forum
Some of these issues were challenged directly. In 1948, the Corpus Christi physician, Hector P. Garcia, founded the American GI Forum in order to demand equal rights to GI Benefits, medical care, burial rights, desegregated education, and other civil rights.[373] In a famous early instance of the Forum's civil rights advocacy, Garcia took up the case of Private Felix Longoria of Three Rivers, Texas. Longoria had died in combat in 1945, but his remains weren't shipped home for several years.[374] When they finally arrived, his widow Beatrice went to the local funeral home to plan a wake in his honor.[375] The funeral home director refused to allow the family to use the chapel, because of their race.[376] The director told the media at the time that he would never allow Mexican Americans to use his facilities, saying, "We just never made it a practice to let them use the chapel and we don't want to start now."[377] When Garcia found out about the situation, he was outraged and immediately sent letters of protest to the media, elected politicians, and government officials. One of these letters was sent to Texas' junior senator, Lyndon B. Johnson, who arranged for Longoria to receive full honors and burial at Arlington National Cemetery.[378] The Longoria incident pushed the American G.I. Forum to the forefront of the postwar Mexican American civil rights strategy.[311] The Forum, alongside LULAC and El Congreso, greatly expanded their operations after World War II and began their fights to end segregation.[379]

Court cases
See also: Mendez v. Westminster and Perez v. Sharp

Segregated school for Mexican American children in New Mexico
In the 1940s, there were two major court cases involving the civil rights of Mexican Americans. The first, Mendez v. Westminster (1947), involved Gonzalo Méndez, a naturalized U.S. citizen born in Mexico, and his Puerto Rican wife Felicitas, who joined four Mexican American families to sue four Orange County school districts.[380] The families challenged the common California practices of drawing school boundaries around majority-Mexican American neighborhoods and of placing Mexicans who lived in majority-white communities into segregated Spanish "remedial" schools.[381][382] During the trial, the Orange County superintendents justified school segregation because the Mexican American children had inferior "personal hygiene", "scholastic ability", and "economic outlook".[380] On the plaintiff's side, the constitutionality of educational segregation was questioned on the basis of the Fourteenth Amendment, and social scientists were brought in as expert witnesses to dispute the supposed educational benefits of segregated schools.[383] In 1946, Judge Paul McCormick ruled that school segregation was a "clear denial" of the Equal Protection Clause, and the next year, McCormick's decision was upheld by the U.S. Court of Appeals.[384] The Méndez case was significant for several reasons, including: the support of NAACP counsel Thurgood Marshall;[385] the plaintiffs' revolutionary use of social scientific research as a basis for law;[386] the legal precedent marking educational segregation as unconstitutional;[387] and the case's influence for the Anderson Bill (1947), which repealed California school segregation.[388]

Leon Watson and Rosina Rodriquez, an interracial couple who were allowed to marry because of the Perez v. Sharp (1948) case
The second major civil rights court victory for Mexican Americans also occurred in California. Andrea Pérez, who was Mexican American, and Sylvester Davis, who was African American, had met and developed a friendship immediately before he was drafted to fight in World War II. When he returned, they resumed their relationship, fell in love, and married.[389] At the time, California's anti-miscegenation code barred interracial marriage.[390] Pérez and Davis hired the civil rights attorney Dan Marshall to represent them in challenging the ban.[391] When the Los Angeles County clerk denied them a marriage license, Pérez formally filed suit. In 1948, the California Supreme Court ruled in favor of the couple, becoming the first state in the country to overturn a ban on interracial marriage.[392] The decision in part relied on arguments based on the inability of the law to account for Mexican mestizaje.[393] The court, noting Pérez' "in-between" racial status, ruled that blanket bans on interracial marriage were "too vague and uncertain" since they did not consider people who were of "mixed ancestry".[393] Also, the court held county clerks and other government employees could not realistically be expected to successfully ascertain the racial makeup of each marriage applicant. Finally, Judge Roger Traynor's majority opinion found that the law also violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.[394] Earl Warren was then the governor of California, and he oversaw the legal implementation of the ruling in the state. Nineteen years later, he served as chief justice in Loving v. Virginia (1967), the U.S. Supreme Court case that struck down all remaining state bans on interracial marriage.[389]

Mid-20th century
Korean War
Main article: Mexicans and Mexican Americans in the Korean War

Private First Class Eugene A. Obregon, United States Marine Corps and posthumous Medal of Honor recipient
In June 1950, the United States entered the Korean War as part of a United Nations-led coalition supporting South Korea.[395] Thousands of Mexican Americans served in the conflict from its beginning, many of them inspired to join the war effort because of the service of their fathers and older brothers in World War II.[396] Staff Sgt. Joe Campos, from Miami, Arizona became one of the first soldiers missing in action of the war after his plane was shot down on June 28, 1950 over the Yellow Sea. A few days later, Florentino Gonzales, from Chicago, was part of the first group of prisoners of war.[397] One Mexican American soldier, Jesus Rodriguez, later remembered how his harsh upbringing in the United States prepared him for the Korean War.[398][399] He stated, "I used to pray a lot. Another thing that helped me was that I was street smart from before going into the service. On the streets I learned how to fight ... Something else that helped me survive Korea was that going hungry wasn't new to me and didn't hurt me."[400] Ten Mexican Americans were awarded the Medal of Honor for their valor in the Korean War;[400] they included: Joe R. Baldonado, Victor H. Espinoza, Eduardo C. Gomez, Edward Gómez, Ambrosio Guillen, Rodolfo P. Hernandez, Benito Martinez, Eugene Arnold Obregon, Mike C. Pena, and Joseph C. Rodriguez.[401] Finally, Gen. Richard E. Cavazos, born in Kingsville, Texas, became the first Mexican American four-star general and head of the U.S. Army Forces Command.[402]

Bracero program
Main article: Bracero program

Bracero workers were subject to invasive medical examinations and harmful DDT sprays before they were allowed to enter the U.S.
In 1951, the U.S. government passed Public Law 78, a law which formalized the Bracero Program, a temporary work exchange program with Mexico.[403] First begun as a scheme to fill wartime labor shortages during World War II, Congress decided to formalize the program for a number of reasons: first, new concerns were raised about domestic labor gaps during the Korean War; second, political concerns were raised about a potential rise in undocumented immigration if Mexican laborers were not offered a legal pathway to work in the U.S.; third, agricultural employers' associations lobbied hard for the program since they benefited the most from its subsidizations.[404] Estimates place the annual number of laborers entering the U.S. in the 1950s at around 300,000,[405] and a significant number of these Braceros were indigenous Mexicans, who hardly spoke Spanish.[406] Domestically, the program was controversial. The U.S. Department of Labor official overseeing the program called it "legalized slavery",[407] and some Mexican Americans believed the program suppressed their own wages.[408] Dolores Huerta, a prominent labor organizer, first began her work as an organizer with the Stockton Community Service Organization (CSO) in the 1950s, where she organized voter registration drives, and pressed for barrio improvements.[409][410] She was a vehement opposer of the Bracero program and was a key actor lobbying for its termination.[411]

Operation Wetback
Main article: Operation Wetback

Border Patrol hold teenage Mexican immigrant boys at gunpoint in Texas
In 1951, the Truman administration's Commission on Migratory Labor released a scathing and xenophobic report blaming the Southwest's social ills on undocumented immigration. The report stated, "The magnitude [of undocumented migration] ... has reached entirely new levels in the past 7 years ... In its newly achieved proportions, it is virtually an invasion."[412] This report, and an August 1953 tour of Southern California, influenced Attorney General Herbert Brownell, Jr. to push Congress to sanction the employers of undocumented workers.[413] This did not become law. Nevertheless, the new Eisenhower administration moved forward with planning a mass deportation operation. On June 9, 1954, the INS Commissioner Joseph Swing announced Operation Wetback, a campaign to deport all undocumented people from the United States. Extensive media coverage during the period exaggerated the Border Patrol's menace and strength, and extensively reported displays of strength as part of a broader PR campaign against undocumented migration.[413] While 1.1 million INS apprehensions occurred that year, estimates place the number of deportations resulting directly from Operation Wetback at around 33,000 people,[414] with perhaps another 60,000 who voluntarily repatriated.[413] Mexican American organizations, such as LULAC and the American G.I. Forum - as well as the broader Mexican American middle-class - were largely supportive of the campaign surrounding Operation Wetback, believing that unauthorized Mexican immigration had "materially retarded" the acceptance and assimilation of Mexican Americans into American culture.[415]

Law and politics
See also: Edward R. Roybal and Hernandez v. Texas

LA councilman Edward R. Roybal with two young boys
Electorally, Mexican Americans made small but important strides in the 1950s. In Los Angeles, Edward R. Roybal served as the only Mexican American member on the Los Angeles City Council. During his time on council, he took a series of important positions, including: fighting against an ordinance which required communists to register with the police;[416] opposing the tearing down of the Mexican American neighborhood of Chavez Ravine to build Dodger Stadium;[417] and pushing for the establishment of a Fair Employment Practices Commission for the city.[418] In 1954, he also ran for Lieutenant Governor, but he lost to the incumbent Goodwin Knight (R) by more than ten points.[419] Despite these gains in political visibility, however, Mexican American Angelenos also experienced several high-profile incidents of police brutality in the early 1950s, including Bloody Christmas.[420][421]

In the courts, Mexican Americans continued to challenge the legal infrastructure of American segregation. Throughout the Southwest, Mexican Americans were often deliberately excluded from serving as jurors in cases involving Mexican American defendants.[422] In 1954, Pete Hernandez, an agricultural worker, was convicted by an all-Anglo jury in Jackson County, Texas for murder. Hernandez's pro bono legal team, including Gustavo C. García, appealed the ruling, arguing that he was being discriminated against because there were no Mexicans in the jury that convicted him. They argued that Hernandez had the right to be tried by a jury of his peers under the 14th Amendment. The State of Texas denied their claim, but they appealed to the United States Supreme Court through a writ of certiorari.[423] The legal team included García, Carlos Cadena and John J. Herrera of the League of United Latin American Citizens, and James DeAnda and Cris Alderete of the G. I. Forum, both activist groups for civil rights for Mexican Americans. These were the first Mexican-American lawyers to represent a defendant before the U.S. Supreme Court, which heard their arguments on January 11, 1954. Chief Justice Earl Warren and the Supreme Court unanimously ruled in favor of Hernandez, and required he be retried by a jury composed of his peers.

Chicano Movement
Main article: Chicano Movement
See also: Chicana/o studies
1960s

The Chicano Movement, also referred to as El Movimiento, was a social and political movement during the Civil Rights Movement. It was inspired by prior acts of resistance of Mexican Americans, perhaps most directly the Pachucos of the 1940s and 1950s.
In the 1960s, a sub-group of Mexican American student organizations developed ideologies of Chicano nationalism and the Chicano movement, highlighting American discrimination against Mexican Americans and emphasizing the overarching failures of a culturally pluralistic society.[424] Calling themselves La Raza, Chicano activists sought to affirm Mexican Americans' racial distinctiveness and working-class status, create a pro-barrio movement, and assert that "brown is beautiful."[424] Urging against both ethnic assimilation and the mistreatment of low-wage workers, the Chicano Movement was the first large-scale mobilization of Mexican American activism in United States history.[425]

The Chicano movement blossomed in the 1960s. The movement had roots in the civil rights struggles that had preceded it, adding to it the cultural and generational politics of the era.

In 1963, in Crystal City, Texas the mainly Mexican-American migrant community together with the support of the Teamsters Union and the Political Association of Spanish-Speaking Organizations (PASSO), an outgrowth of the Viva Kennedy clubs of 1960, encouraged Mexican-American men and women to pay their poll tax and choose their own candidates. Led by Teamsters business agent and cannery employee, Juan Cornejo, five Mexican-Americans, despite intimidation by the Texas Rangers, won the support of their community young and old alike who thanks to the protection provided by the Teamsters and PASSO mobilized for electoral victory. This "revolt" was covered nationwide and reported in the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal. This election led Americans outside of the Southwest to take note of America's other minority community as a political force.

The early proponents of the movement — Rodolfo Gonzales in Denver, Colorado and Reies Tijerina in New Mexico — adopted a historical account of the preceding hundred and twenty-five years that obscured much of Mexican-American history. Gonzales and Tijerina embraced a form of nationalism that was based on the failure of the United States government to live up to the promises that it had made in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.[426]

The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 set strict quotas on the number of persons who could legally enter the U.S. from Latin American nations, and most new Mexican migration to the U.S. in the 1960s was temporary and short-term. Seasonal migration between the United States and Mexico became illegal in 1965. Nevertheless, the numbers involved with seasonal agriculture kept growing, often forced to resort to undocumented migration. They made money in the U.S. but returned to the villages to spend it, tend to the family business, and participate in extended kinship rituals such as baptisms, weddings, and funerals.

The most significant union struggle involving Mexican-Americans was the United Farm Workers' long strike and boycott aimed at grape growers in the San Joaquin and Coachella Valleys in the late 1960s, followed by campaigns to organize lettuce workers in California and Arizona, farm workers in Texas, and orange grove workers in Florida.

The most prominent civil rights organization in the Mexican-American community is the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF), founded in 1968. Although modeled after the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, MALDEF has also taken on many of the functions of other organizations, including political advocacy and training of local leaders.

Instead, when the movement dealt with practical problems most activists focused on the most immediate issues confronting Mexican-Americans: unequal educational and employment opportunities, political disenfranchisement, and police brutality. In the heady days of the late 1960s, when the student movement was active around the globe, the Chicano movement brought about more or less spontaneous actions, such as the mass walkouts by high school students in Denver and East Los Angeles in 1968.

The movement was particularly strong at the college level, where activists formed MEChA, el Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán, which promoted Chicano Studies programs and a generalized nationalist agenda. The student movement produced a generation of future political leaders, including Richard Alatorre and Cruz Bustamante in California.

1970s

Top: The Brown Berets, a pro-Chicano organization which revolved around farm worker's struggles, educational reform, and anti-war activism.
Bottom: Raúl Héctor Castro, the Governor of Arizona from 1975-1977.
Some women who worked within the Chicano movement felt that participants were more worried about other issues, such as immigration than solving problems that affected women. This led Chicanas to form the Comisión Femenil Mexicana Nacional in 1970. The National Chicano Moratorium March was also held in Los Angeles in 1970.

La Raza Unida Party campaigns in the early 1970s had the practical effect of defeating Mexican-American Democratic candidates, embittering many activists against the party and the form of nationalism it represented.

As a result of the Voting Rights Act, followed up by intensive political organizing, Mexican-Americans were able to achieve a new degree of political power and representation in Texas and elsewhere in the Southwest. The La Raza Unida Party, headed by José Ángel Gutiérrez of Crystal City, Texas made startling progress in the poorest regions in the Rio Grande Valley with its base of operations at Crystal City, Texas in the early 1970s, spreading for a while to Colorado, Wisconsin, California, Michigan, Oregon, Kansas, Illinois and several other states. The party faded in the mid-1970s and held on only in Crystal City, Texas before collapsing in the early 1980s. Veterans from the party, such as Willie Velasquez, became active in Democratic politics and in organizing projects such as the Southwest Voter Registration Education Project, which boosted the electoral fortunes of Mexican-American candidates throughout the Southwest.

While the UFW suffered severe setbacks in California in 1973 and never established a strong union presence in other states, its struggle propelled César Chávez and Dolores Huerta into national prominence, while providing the foot soldiers who helped increase the visibility of Mexican-Americans within the Democratic Party in California and elect a number of Mexican-American candidates in the 1970s and 1980s.

By the late 1970s, tactics had forced growers to recognize the UFW as the bargaining agent for 50,000 field workers in California and Florida.

Reagan era

Manuel Lujan Jr. the United States Secretary of the Interior from 1989 to 1993
Since the 1980s, Mexican migration has increased dramatically. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 granted amnesty to illegal immigrants who had resided in the U.S. before 1982 while imposing penalties on employers who hired illegal immigrants. Several factors led to an increase in Mexican immigration to the U.S. The Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s led to high rates of unemployment in Mexico and destroyed the savings of a large portion of the middle-class.

In the 1980s, the first Mexican-American was elected to the Los Angeles City Council in over twenty years. A landmark lawsuit was also filed by the American Civil Liberties Union and the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, which argued "the Los Angeles Supervisors in 1981 adopted a plan that fragmented the Latino population into three districts, thus dividing their political power." The outcome of this litigation permitted a Mexican-American to win election to the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, the first Mexican American to join that body in more than a century. Ben Fernandez an American politician, financial consultant and special ambassador ran for President of the United States three times, seriously in 1980 and with more perfunctory campaigns in 1984 and 1988, making him America's first major-party presidential contender of Latin American origin.[427] Fernandez was born in Kansas to Mexican parents who were illegal immigrants. At the same time and for similar reasons, neoliberal politician like Henry Cisneros, the mayor of San Antonio, Texas who was a serious contender for the 1984 Democratic Party vice-presidential nomination; Federico Pena the mayor of Denver, Colorado; and Toney Anaya, former governor of New Mexico, emerged as the new voices of Mexican Americans political leadership.

1990s
National politics

President Clinton with his Latino political appointees
In the final two years of the Bush administration, Congress made several important adjustments to U.S. immigration law. The Immigration Act of 1990 made marrying to evade immigration laws, voting in federal elections as a non-citizen, and "falsely claiming citizenship" to attain employment criminal violations which would lead to incarceration and deportation.[243] The bill also created the temporary protected status (TPS visa), lifted the English testing process for naturalization for permanent residents over 55, and eliminated exclusion of homosexuals as "sexual deviants".[428][429][430]

During the Clinton administration, several cabinet-level Mexican Americans served under President Bill Clinton. These included Henry Cisneros (Department of Housing and Urban Development), Federico Peña (Department of Transportation and Department of Energy), and Bill Richardson (U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations and Department of Energy).[431] Clinton was widely praised for his overall cabinet selections, which were significantly more diverse than prior administrations.[432] During his presidency, however, Clinton's legacy with both Mexico and the Mexican American community was more mixed. His passage of the 1994 Crime Bill is recognized as disproportionately targeting and incarcerating young Mexican American and African American men.[433] Further, his policy of pushing Washington Consensus policies on Mexico led to the 1994 Mexican Peso Crisis,[434] which decimated the Mexican working class and increased migration to the United States. Finally, his signing of the NAFTA is recognized for its harmful effect on both nation's working classes, and the expansion of maquiladoras in states like Baja California, Chihuahua, and Coahuila.[435][436]

Gang culture

The 1990s saw an explosion of Chicano gang activity in cities such as Los Angeles, San Antonio, and Chicago.
In the 1990s, Chicano youth gang involvement continued to rise across the country, as the result of both the expansion of cocaine markets and widespread socioeconomic changes in the United States.[437] Manufacturing jobs had been decreasing across the U.S. for over twenty years, and as the American economy turned increasingly turned toward the technological and service industries, unemployment rates among young men of color soared in urban areas.[437] Unable to find work in this changing economy, drug markets became the only source of survival for these displaced workers, as the rising prices for crack cocaine became a way for desperate youth to make money.[437] Over time, however, drug markets were monopolized by organized gangs, which actively recruited increasingly younger African American and Chicano youth.[438] Traditional American pathways away from a "gangster lifestyle", such as marriage, family, and stable employment, were largely unavailable to these youth, and in many black, Chicano, and immigrant communities, gang influence emerged as "a dominant informal control and socialization force".[437]

Chicano youth gang activity in the 1990s rose notably in Los Angeles and Chicago, two of the cities with the nation's highest numbers of Mexican Americans,[439] but gang activity rose in almost every U.S. city, including throughout Texas.[440] The political response to gangs such as the Mexican Mafia and 38th Street was a dramatic escalation of the Reagan administration's War on Drugs. Racialized fears of black and brown "superpredators" resulted in tough-on-crime policies in the 1990s, culminating in the infamous Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994.[441] The law provided local funding to hire over 100,000 new police officers; created grant programs to incentivize drug-related arrests; gave states funds to build massive new prison facilities; and disproportionately criminalized crack cocaine over cocaine.[442][443] Some have argued this bill led directly to the U.S.' rise of mass incarceration.[444]

The ramifications of police militarization were extremely severe, particularly in cities like Los Angeles. In the late-80s, LAPD had responded to gang violence with a series of extremely violent community raids, including Operation Hammer, which was organized under the Community Resources Against Street Hoodlums (CRASH).[445] In the 1990s, as many as 2,000 people a year were killed in Los Angeles County due to gang violence.[446] In September 1993, a mass meeting in Elysian Park organized by La Eme was called to put an end to "violence between Mexicans", however such truces were not usually long-lasting.[447] So, after the passage of the 1994 Crime Bill, the LAPD responded by ramping up its anti-gang tactics, including home and apartment raids, street sweeps, and civil gang injunctions.[448][449]

Union campaigns
See also: Justice for Janitors
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) initiated a series of "Justice for Janitors" campaigns to unionize U.S. janitors.[450] At a march in Los Angeles on June 15, 1990, the striking janitors - many of whom were undocumented Mexican and Central American immigrants - were attacked by the Los Angeles Police Department.[451] The police at first claimed they were acting in "self defense", but TV news footage aired later showed the police violently beating unarmed and peaceful strikers.[452] 60 strikers were jailed, 38 were hospitalized, and two women miscarried.[452][453] One striker told reporters, "What they did to us today in front of the TV cameras is the way the police treat us every day", and another woman stated, "I wasn't robbing a bank or selling drugs, I'm simply asking for an increase in pay, but the police beat us as if we were garbage."[452] Public outrage followed coverage of the event, and the janitors won the union, which doubled their pay and earned them benefits. The strike also inspired janitors in other parts of the country, including Houston, where jailed strikers were held on $20 million dollar bail for "civil disobedience".[452][454] Outrage over the incident in Houston was global, with workers across the U.S. striking in support, and allies in Europe occupying buildings in protest.[452] The Houston strike was successful, and pushed pension fund trustees to develop "responsible contractor" procedures.[452][455] The 2000 film Bread and Roses was based on the Los Angeles campaign.[456] In the mid-90s, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) also sought to organize Mexican workers, including troqueros and taxi drivers in LA.[457]

Los Angeles uprising
See also: 1992 Los Angeles riots

51% of people arrested during the 1992 Los Angeles uprising were Latino. Many of them were Mexican and Central American immigrants living in South Los Angeles.
The 1992 Los Angeles uprising was an uprising against police brutality that occurred in Los Angeles County in April and May 1992.[458] Unrest began in South Central Los Angeles on April 29, after a trial jury acquitted four officers of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) for usage of excessive force in the arrest and beating of Rodney King, which had been videotaped and widely viewed in TV broadcasts. Though much of the media coverage surrounding the events focused on constructing either a "black vs. white" or a "black vs. Asian" narrative (due to the tensions caused by the murder of Latasha Harlins),[459] the majority of people arrested during the uprising were Latino.[460] Analysis of charges in the riot's peak days showed 51% of defendants were Latino and 36% were black, and, of the 58 total people killed during the riots, more than one-third were Latino.[461][462] Stanford University professor Joan Petersilia stated about the uprising, "This was clearly not a black riot. It was a minority riot."[463]

The majority of the Latino residents of South Central Los Angeles in the early 1990s were recent Mexican immigrants and Central Americans.[462] As a result, when the city's Latino leadership met during the uprising to discuss resolution strategies, the disconnect between LA's Mexican-American establishment and South LA's recent migrant community was more fully understood.[462] Los Angeles County's only Latino supervisor, Gloria Molina, told The New York Times that in the days when Los Angeles was burning, she received multiple calls from Mexican American constituents urging her to denounce South Central's Mexican population. Molina stated, "They would say, 'Well, Gloria, it wasn't us doing the looting and the burning. It was those immigrants.'"[462] Molina went further and stated, "They wanted me to denounce them. But I say, let's not let that divide us."[462]

Even white journalists, such as the Los Angeles Times reporter Jack Miles, noted the tension between the South and East LA Latino communities.[464] He wrote, the "law-abiding Mexican-American community" of East Los Angeles resented being associated with the Latinos of South Los Angeles, and that the incident marked the beginning of a Mexican American "anti-immigrant stance".[464] In the years after the uprising, some journalists focused on the long-term interracial scars left by the racial uprising,[465] while others focused on the multiple intra-ethnic meanings the uprising held for Latino communities in Los Angeles.[466] Historians have also explained some of the reasons why there was so much Latino participation, including: the brutality that Latinos also experienced from the LAPD; the near-constant threat of deportation; and the neoliberal defunding of inner-city municipal services.[467]

Proposition 187
Main article: 1994 California Proposition 187

A young member of the Brown Berets at a Fresno march for the "No on Proposition 187" campaign.
Proposition 187 (also known as the Save Our State (SOS) initiative) was a 1994 ballot initiative to establish a state-run citizenship screening system and prohibit undocumented immigrants from using non-emergency health care, public schooling, and other services in the State of California.[468] The bill was widely opposed by the state's Latino communities, though some Mexican Americans did express support for the measure.[469] In the lead-up to the November vote, there were widespread "No on 187" protests throughout California, as activists urged that a full denial of basic rights to undocumented people would be detrimental to the state.[470] In October 1994, an estimated seventy thousand people marched in Los Angeles to protest Prop. 187 in one of the largest protests in U.S. history.[471] The political atmosphere in California at the time, however, was extremely xenophobic,[472] and coverage of the protest focused on the large number of Latino, Mexican, and Mexican American participants and especially expressed outrage at the presence of Mexican flags at the protest.[473] Proposition 187 passed with 58% of the vote.[474] Shortly after the proposition's passage, U.S. District Court Judge Mariana R. Pfaelzer in Los Angeles ruled that preventing undocumented children from attending K-12 schools was unconstitutional and prevented the implementation of most of the measure's other provisions.[475] Proposition 187, though overturned, significantly eroded Mexican American and Latino support for the California Republican Party.[476] In many ways, however, its basic tenets shaped the future of American debates regarding the rights of undocumented people in the U.S.[477] Culturally, the measure also had a strong impact on the community. In Selenidad (2009), the poet Deborah Paredez connected the collective trauma of the 1995 death of Selena to the community's response to the measure's initial passage, writing, "Selena's death galvanized Latino efforts to publicly mourn collective tragedies (such as approved anti-Latino legislation in California, Proposition 187 and Proposition 229) and to envision a brighter future."[478]

Early 2000s

Justice Sandra Day O'Connor presents Alberto Gonzales to the audience after swearing him in as Attorney General, as Mrs. Gonzales looks on.
The 2000 Census showed that the foreign-born population of the U.S. increased by 11.3 million people in the 1990s, and Mexican immigrants accounted for 43% of that growth.[479] The region which had the fastest-growing immigrant population was the Southeast, where many Mexicans who found work in construction, as migrant agricultural laborers, and in textile mills and chicken processing plants. The Latino populations of Georgia, North and South Carolina, and Arkansas increased between 300 and 400 per cent from 1990 to 2000.[480]

A major focus of Chicano activists in the 21st century has been to advance the representation of Chicanos in all American mainstream media.[481] Criticism of the American mainstream news media and U.S. educational institutions by Chicano activists has been particularly harsh in recent years subsequent to the massive displays of support for immigrant rights such as that seen during La Gran Marcha[482] (The Great March) on March 25, 2006 in Los Angeles. As of today, this self-proclaimed "largest march in U.S. history" which was primarily organized by Mexican American organizations, Chicano activists, and fueled through a large network of active Internet users, L.A. Spanish language television, and Spanish language news radio coverage, is still virtually ignored by American mainstream (English language) news media and all textbooks of the American educational system.

After the increased border security following the 9-11 attacks in 2001, the back-and-forth pattern became dangerous. People kept coming north, but they stayed in the U.S. and sent money home every month. Locked into the American economy year-round, millions of these undocumented workers moved out of season agricultural jobs into year-round jobs in restaurants, hotels, construction, landscaping and semiskilled factory work, such as meatpacking. Most paid federal social security taxes into imaginary accounts (and thus were not eligible for benefits.) Few had high enough incomes to pay federal or state income taxes, but all paid local and state sales taxes on their purchases as well as local property taxes (via their rent payments to landlords). By 2007 there were 12  million or so undocumented workers in the U.S.

Hilda Solis in February 2009, becoming the first Latina to serve in the U.S. Cabinet
In 2005, Antonio Villaraigosa was elected mayor of Los Angeles, the first Latino in 130 years to hold the seat. Eric Garcetti became the second consecutive Mexican American mayor.

Mexican-Americans tend to vote Democratic (in 1960, the John F. Kennedy presidential campaign boosted the Mexican American vote to over 80% for Kennedy). However, Mexican Americans in recent decades had a low turnout on election day. In 1984, 37 percent of Latino Americans voted for Ronald Reagan and George W. Bush targeted Latinos and won 35% of their votes in 2000, and 40% in 2004 and the fact that his brother Jeb Bush is married to a Mexican woman (Columba Bush).

Voters have elected a number of governors of Mexican descent in the Southwest, include Ezequiel Cabeza De Baca, Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Jerry Apodaca, Toney Anaya, Bill Richardson, and Raúl Héctor Castro in Arizona. Cruz Bustamante was the first Democratic lieutenant governor of California in 130 years from his election in 1999 to 2007, but Bustamante lost the gubernatorial election to Austrian-born actor Arnold Schwarzenegger, who went on to be state governor. Romualdo Pacheco served as 12th governor of California and remains the only Latino governor in the state's history as part of the United States.

2010s
Obama era
Electoral politics

President Obama signed Exec. Order 13555, October 19, 2010
Mexican Americans made significant electoral strides during the Obama Era. In 2010, the Republican Brian Sandoval was elected governor of Nevada; he was the first Latino to ever do so.[483] That same year, the Republican Susana Martinez became the first woman and Latina to be elected as governor of New Mexico and was the first Republican Latina governor in U.S. history.[484] Also in 2010, Joseph García was elected the first Latino lieutenant governor of Colorado in the state's history.[485][486]

During the 2012 United States presidential election, President Obama ran against the former-governor of Massachusetts Mitt Romney. During the campaign, Romney sparked outrage amongst many Mexican and Mexican American officials when he suggested the economic disparities between the United States and Mexico were the result of the "hand of providence".[487] Latinos voted overwhelmingly for President Obama's re-election in 2012, when he earned as much as 71% of the community's vote.[488] In response to their overwhelming defeat, Reince Priebus, the chair of the Republican National Committee, ordered an "autopsy report" to assess deficiencies and paths forward for the party.[489] The report called for greater inclusion of Mexican Americans, Latinos, and other minority groups, stating, "If Hispanic Americans hear that the GOP doesn't want them in the United States, they won't pay attention to our next sentence. It doesn't matter what we say about education, jobs or the economy; if Hispanics think that we do not want them here, they will close their ears to our policies."[490] The report, however, was largely ignored by the GOP in the years ahead.[491]

Immigration
See also: Arizona SB 1070 and Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals

Protest against SB1070.
In the 2010s, nativism in the United States increased, particularly in border states like Arizona. In 2010, the Arizona State Legislature proposed and passed the Support Our Law Enforcement and Safe Neighborhoods Act (SB 1070). Critics of the bill argued it was a fundmantally racist law designed to legalize racial profiling.[492] In Arizona v. United States (2012), the Supreme Court overturned three provisions of the bill, including: requiring "legal" immigrants to carry registration documents at all time; allowing state police to arrest any individual for suspicion of being undocumented; and making it a crime for undocumented people to search for or hold jobs in the state.[493][494][495] Despite its overturning, the bill had negative social effects on the Mexican and Mexican American communities, particularly for children and youth.[496][497][498] In the same year Arizona passed SB1070, it also passed Arizona House Bill 2281, effectively barring Mexican American Studies (history and literature) from being taught in the state's public schools.[499][500]

Kamala Harris with a group of DACA-recipients in 2017.
On June 15, 2012, President Barack Obama announced an executive branch memorandum known as Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA).[501] This change to immigration policy allowed eligible undocumented individuals brought to the country as children to receive a renewable two-year period of deferred action from deportation and become eligible for a work permit in the U.S. (without providing a path to citizenship for recipients).[502] U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) began accepting applications for the program on August 15, 2012, and in less than one year, over half a million people applied to the DACA program.[503] The next year, in 2013, a bi-partisan group of eight United States Senators—known as the Gang of Eight—wrote the first draft of the Border Security, Economic Opportunity, and Immigration Modernization Act of 2013.[504] The bill would have provided a path to citizenship for millions of undocumented Americans.[505] It passed the Senate with a strong majority—68–32, with 14 Republicans joining all Democrats; however, the United States House of Representatives under Speaker John Boehner did not act on the bill, and it expired at the end of the 113th Congress.[506]

Young man apprehended by immigration officers.
During his time in office, President Obama was known in the Mexican American community as the "Deporter in Chief".[507] Between 2009 and 2015, his administration removed more than 2.5 million people from the country, though some analysts claimed these numbers were "misleading" due to the way they were calculated.[508][509] During his time in office, the Department of Homeland Security initiated two policies which represented a major shift from prior administrations. First, DHS began placing undocumented border crossers through formal removal proceedings; second, it made non-citizens "with criminal records" the agency's top deportation target.[510] Thus, when faced with criticism for his administration's record high deportation numbers, President Obama responded by saying, "The statistics are actually a little deceptive ... we've been apprehending folks at the borders and sending them back. That is counted as a deportation even though they may have only been held for a day or 48 hours."[511] Nevertheless, Obama faced significant criticism for his failure to pass immigration reform and for the detrimental effects of deportation on families' lives.[512][513]

Gentrification

A French arts organization in the SF Mission District
One of the most serious issues facing urban Mexican Americans in the 2010s was residential displacement through gentrification. In San Francisco's historic Latino neighborhood, the Mission District, the rapid expansion of Silicon Valley created a housing shortage, which incentivized investors to buy properties in historically low-income neighborhoods (like the Mission) in order to renovate them and sell them at higher rates to tech workers.[514][515] As a result, many of the neighborhoods' taquerias, bakeries, bars, and auto mechanic shops were replaced with luxury condominiums, organic ice cream stores, international art galleries, and upscale cafes.[516] Significant resistance to the Mission's gentrification emerged, including the "restorative economics" of La Cocina Community Kitchen, the resistance art projects of the Clarion Alley Mural Project, the San Francisco tech bus protests, and the "radically inclusive" social services provided by the Dolores Street Community Services Shelter.[517]

Gentrification protest, 2017
In Los Angeles, gentrification affected the traditionally Mexican American neighborhoods of Echo Park, Highland Park, and large swaths of East Los Angeles, particularly the neighborhood of Boyle Heights. As white, college-educated young people increasingly moved to Los Angeles in the 2010s, they wanted to live in "hip", "urban", "edgy" and importantly, affordable, neighborhoods.[518] Their presence increasingly pushed rent up and made the neighborhoods unaffordable to long-time residents.[519] In Boyle Heights, this process was sped up by the arrival of a subway station, called Mariachi Plaza station, which made the neighborhood even more desirable to young white gentrifiers wanting easy access to the rest of Los Angeles.[520] In 2016, significant controversy arose when the message "Fuck White Art" was spray-painted on the entrance to the Nicodim Gallery in Boyle Heights, especially when the LAPD classified the graffiti as a "hate crime".[521] Modern commentators compared gentrification to the urban renewal projects of the 20th century and connected urban displacement to American capitalism, racism, and colonization.[522][523]

Protest against rising gentrification in Chicago
Gentrification affected many major urban Mexican American populations in the country, including in cities like San Diego, Albuquerque, and Chicago.[524] In the historically Mexican American neighborhood of Pilsen in Chicago, working class families experienced high levels of displacement due to rising rents and property taxes.[525] Pilsen (which had grown as a Mexican American enclave in the 1960s and 1970s when expansions to the University of Illinois at Chicago's campus forced them into the neighborhood)[526] became a "tourist attraction" in the 2010s, where sanitized versions of "Latinoness" were marketed to developers and new potential residents.[527] The result was the opening of new businesses catered primarily to upscale non-resident visitors and recent arrivals. Pilsen's primary tool to resist gentrification was a grassroots effort to designate the neighborhood a historic landmark.[528]

LGBT rights

Young Latinos at the D.C. Capital Gay Pride Parade.
LGBTQ+ rights made significant strides in the 2010s. Between 2010 and 2019, public support for marriage equality rose by over 19 points, and 2011 marked the first time in U.S. history that more people supported same-sex marriage than opposed it.[529] In 2011, President Obama formally ended the policy of "Don't ask, don't tell", allowing openly-identified gay men and lesbians to serve in the U.S. military.[530] In 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that same-sex marriage was a constitutionally-protected right under the 14th Amendment.[531] Around the time of the Supreme Court's ruling, Latino support for marriage equality was amongst the highest of any ethnic group.[532]

Despite these significant strides, however, the Mexican American and Latino LGBT communities continued to struggle with many challenges. In the aftermath of the Great Recession, an approximately 4.2 million youth experienced homelessness in the U.S., of which 700,000 were unaccompanied minors.[533] Of these 4.2 million, estimates range that between eleven and forty percent were LGBTQ, many of whom were Mexican American or Latino.[534][535] Transgender equality also remained a major issue for many Mexican Americans. In the 2010s, black and Latino transgender women experienced homicide rates widely disproportionate to their percentage of the overall population.[536][537] The failure of the Obama administration or mainstream LGBT organizations to address any of these difficulties created outrage amongst the LGBT Mexican American and Latinx communities. In 2015, the activist Bamby Salcedo disrupted the opening session of the National LGBTQ Task Force's annual conference to protest the white LGBT community's continued ignorance regarding violence against transgender women of color.[538][539] In the 2010s, LGBT Mexican and Latino ICE detainees also experienced alarmingly high rates of sexual abuse in U.S. immigration detention centers.[540][541] The undocumented activist Jennicet Gutiérrez interrupted a speech by President Obama during a White House LGBT celebration dinner in 2015 to protest violent detention center conditions for LGBT Latinos.[542]

"Build that wall!"

"Latinos para Trump" signs waved at the 2016 RNC.
From the start of Donald Trump's campaign for president, he faced accusations of racism and discrimination against Mexicans and Mexican Americans. In his announcement speech in August 2015, Trump said the United States had become a "dumping ground" for unwanted people from other countries and received pushback in particular for his statement: "When Mexico sends its people, they're not sending their best. They're bringing drugs. They're bringing crime. They're rapists. And some, I assume, are good people."[543] The comment was interpreted by many to imply that immigrants from Mexico had been "sent" to the U.S., and that many could be generalized as "criminals and rapists".[544][545] In June 2016, Trump was again accused of racism when he said he would be unable to receive a fair hearing from the Mexican American judge Gonzalo Curiel because, "The judge, who happens to be, we believe, Mexican ... [has] an absolute conflict ... I'm building a wall. It's an inherent conflict of interest."[546][547][548] The border wall was one of the central themes of Trump's 2016 campaign, with many of his rallies featuring the chant, "Build that wall!"[549] Numerous commentators noted the racial and nativist connotations underlying the campaign pledge to build a wall.[550] Studies conducted during the 2016 presidential election showed negative online discourse surrounding Latinos was so severe that it negatively affected the community's mental well-being.[551] Nevertheless, Trump won at least 18% of the Latino vote in 2016.[552][553]

During the Trump administration, agencies, including the U.S. Marshals and ICE, collaborated in raids.
While in office, the Trump administration unleashed a series of controversial policies affecting Latinos. On May 7, 2018, Jeff Sessions, then Trump's attorney general, announced a new "zero tolerance" policy at the U.S.-Mexico border, meaning any person apprehended crossing the border without documentation would be charged criminally and any children accompanying them would be held separately.[554] Though the policy was ended by executive order within a month, more than 500 children remained separated from their parents more than two years later.[555] During the 2018 midterm elections, Trump politicized the Central American refugee crisis, claiming "terrorists" and "gang members" were secretly hiding alongside women and children in order to gain entry into the United States.[556] After the midterm elections, the Trump administration adopted the "Remain in Mexico" program, which essentially sought to shut down asylum entry into the country.[557] The policy resulted in a humanitarian crisis, as tens of thousands of refugees were forced to live in makeshift tent encampments in Mexico while they awaited an asylum hearing.[558][559] Trump's efforts on the border resulted in the erection of over 53 miles of new border wall and the renovation of over 400 miles of existing border walls;[560] this wall construction sparked outrage for its impact on indigenous communities.[561] During the Trump years, Immigration and Customs Enforcement also collaborated with other U.S. law enforcement agencies, such as the U.S. Marshals, to conduct large "crime raids", during which hundreds of people were arrested and deported if found to be undocumented.[562] In fact, in 2019, ICE conducted the largest single-state immigration raid in U.S. history.[563]

Trump protests
See also: Protests against the Trump administration family separation policy

Boy holding up a sign at a Families Belong Together march in Phoenix, Arizona.
The 2010s saw levels of mass protest unseen in the United States since the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. In 2017, the Day without Immigrants protested President Donald Trump's plans to build a border wall and to potentially deport millions of undocumented immigrants.[564] In 2018, protests against Trump's family separation policy occurred in over 700 cities and towns in the United States, many under the title, "Families Belong Together".[565][566] Also in response to the Trump's family separation policies, widespread calls emerged to shut down U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE),[567] usually expressed under the slogan "Abolish ICE".[568] In 2019, as the Trump administration sought to end the DACA program, the United States Supreme Court agreed to hear their case.[569] DHS v. University of California created significant controversy, and major protests in support of "Dreamers" occurred across the country.[570][571] Major American corporations also voiced their support for the DACA program,[572] and the Supreme Court ultimately upheld the program.[573] Mexicans Americans were also involved with many of the major social movements during the Trump presidency, including the movement for Black Lives Matter and racial justice,[574] the Women's March (the Chicana activist Carmen Perez was one of four national co-chairs of the 2017 March),[575] and gun control movements like March For Our Lives.[576] According to some scholars, the intense activist energy during the Trump presidency motivated young Mexican Americans to adopt a political identity of "neo-Chicanismo", defined by ethnic pride, cultural heritage and expression, and protecting immigrants' rights.[577][578] This younger activist generation also actively adopted gender neutral language, such as the terms "Chicanx" and "Xicanx" as a way to push back against gender bias in politics, society, and activism.

El Paso shooting
Main article: 2019 El Paso shooting

House Rep. Deb Haaland visits a memorial to the victims of the El Paso shooting.
Over the course of the 2010s, the rise of white nationalist domestic terrorism increased dramatically.[579] There was a large surge in white supremacist and other hate group membership over the course of the Obama administration,[580] and the United States saw a record number of hate crimes committed during the Trump administration.[581] In 2019, one of the largest mass shootings against Latino Americans occurred at a Walmart store in El Paso, Texas when a 21-year old white terrorist open-fired, killing 23 people and injuring 23 others.[582][583] The terrorist, named Patrick Crusius, was mostly radicalized online, a trend which has occurred with increasing frequency in the United States.[584][585] National security experts have compared the radicalization of white and other far-right terrorists to the online recruitment of terror organizations like ISIS.[586] Shortly before the attack, the terrorist posted his "manifesto" to the online message board 8chan, where he wrote about the "Latino invasion of Texas" and detailed a plan to separate America by race, claiming "white people were being replaced by foreigners."[587] The terrorist faces 90 federal charges, including 23 counts of federal hates crimes resulting in death, and he will face the death penalty if found guilty.[588]

2020s
Politics

Secretary Julian Castro became the second Mexican American to mount a serious campaign for President.
In 2020, former House Representative and Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Julian Castro became the first serious Mexican American candidate for president since Ben Fernandez ran in the 1980 Republican primaries.[589] Castro dropped out of the race on January 6, 2020, after polling far behind other candidates,[590] and he announced his support for Joe Biden on June 2, 2020.[591] During the 2020 general election, some experts were surprised at the strength of Donald Trump's support amongst Mexican Americans in areas like the Rio Grande Valley, which increased by 10% from 2016.[592][593] Others, however, noted that the increase toward Trump in 2020 represented the culmination of long-term trends within the Mexican American and Latino communities.[594] In December 2020, Alex Padilla was appointed to replace Vice President Kamala Harris as the junior senator from California.[595] He was sworn in by Harris in January 2021, thus becoming the first Latino senator in the state's history.[596][597]

Police violence

Sign reading, "Justicia para Adam Toledo", calling for justice for Adam Toledo in April 2021.
In the 2020s, Mexican Americans and other Latinos joined calls for racial justice and an end to police brutality in the United States.[598][599][600] Analysis of fatal U.S. police shootings in October 2020 showed that in the prior five years, Native Americans, black Americans, and Latinos were the three ethnic groups killed by police at the highest rates in the country, respectively.[601] Activists within the community, however, expressed frustration that in the years leading up to the 2020–21 United States racial unrest, police killings of Latino boys and men had largely been met with sustained national indifference.[602][603][604][605] Several cases did generate national headlines.[606] Outrage was expressed when eighth-grader Andy Lopez (13 years old) was shot and killed by the Sonoma County sheriff's deputy who mistook Lopez' toy gun for a real gun, and no criminal charges were ever filed.[607] The death of Andres Guardado (18 years old) also sparked outrage after a Los Angeles Sheriff's Department whistleblower claimed the officer killed Guardado as part of an "initiation".[608][609] Nationally, over 900 Latinos were killed by the police in just the five years leading up to 2020.[607][610] Some of these killings of young unarmed Latino men drew outrage for their sheer brutality. In the case of Sean Monterrosa (22 years old) in Vallejo, California, Monterrosa was apprehended, on his knees, with his hands held above his waist, when police opened fired and killed him.[611] In the case of Alex Nieto (28 years old), Nieto was eating his dinner of a burrito and chips before work at a San Francisco park when a passerby called 9-1-1 because he considered Nieto suspicious. When the SFPD arrived, one officer shot 23 rounds at Nieto, another officer shot him 20 times, and two more officers shot Nieto at least 5 more times while he lay dying, yet no officer was criminally charged.[612][607] In March 2021, 13-year old Adam Toledo in Chicago was chased into an alley before being shot and killed by police.[613]

COVID-19

Food box packing facility during COVID, July 17, 2020
The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately impacted the Mexican American and Latino communities. Professor Rogelio Sáenz described the pandemic's effect on Tejanos and Latinos in Texas, saying, 2020 was "a hellish, hellish year. Once you adjusted for age, you really see clearly that Latinos were dying at rates more than three times as high as the white population."[614] In 2020 alone, approximately 1 in 1,150 Latinos in the United States died from COVID-19.[615][616] Because many Mexican Americans and Latinos disproportionately work in the service-sector and were thus considered part of the "essential" workforce, they had to bear a major part of the pandemic's force.[617][618] Complications from the coronavirus were especially dire for Latinos without health insurance.[619] In the economic fallout of the pandemic, many Mexican Americans and Latinos relied on food banks and unemployment insurance to keep their families alive.[620][621]

Historiography
Scholars of Mexican American history

Rodolfo Acuña
James F. Brooks
Geraldo Cadava
Lionel Cantú
Verónica Castillo-Muñoz
Miroslava Chavez-Garcia
Iris Engstrand
Lori A. Flores
Neil Foley
Ignacio M. Garcia
Juan Gómez-Quiñones
Ramón A. Gutiérrez
Lisbeth Haas
Ian Haney López
Mireya Loza
Rosina Lozano
Kelly Lytle Hernández
John Raymond Mckiernan-González
Martha Menchaca
Ana Minian
Natalia Molina
David Montejano
Cherrie Moraga
Monica Muñoz Martinez
Mae Ngai
Eduardo Obregón Pagán
Lorena Oropeza
Americo Paredes
Stephen Pitti
Andrés Reséndez
Horacio Roque Ramírez
Catherine S. Ramirez
Vicki Ruiz
Paul Spickard
Zaragosa Vargas
David J. Weber
See also
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icon    Latino and Hispanic American portal
flag    Mexico portal
    History portal
Latino Americans
History of Mexico
History of United States
List of Mexican Americans
Mexican American
Mexico
Spanish Americans
History of Hispanic and Latino Americans
By state:

    
This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (September 2020)
Hispanos of New Mexico
History of Mexican Americans in Texas
In other regions:

Mexican Americans in Chicago
Mexican Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth
Mexican Americans in Detroit
Mexican Americans in Houston
Mexican Americans in Los Angeles
Mexican Americans in Omaha
Mexican Americans in Tucson
Notes
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 Steinhauer, Jason (11 March 2015). "The History of Mexican Immigration to the U.S. in the Early 20th Century". Insights: Scholarly Works at the John W. Kluge Center. Library of Congress. Retrieved 18 August 2020.
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 Camarillo, Albert (February 1, 1996). Chicanos in a Changing Society: from Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848-1930 (1 ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674113978. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 Sandos, James A (July 1985). "Levantamiento!: The 1824 Chumash Uprising Reconsidered". Southern California Quarterly. 67 (2): 109–133. doi:10.2307/41171145. JSTOR 41171145.
 Hollenbaugh Aviña, Rose (November 1, 1976). Spanish and Mexican Land Grants in California. Ayer Company Publishing. ISBN 978-0405094835.
 Manuel P., Servín (June 1965). "The Secularization of the California Missions: A Reappraisal". Southern California Quarterly. 47 (2): 133–149. doi:10.2307/41169919. JSTOR 41169919.
 "Secularization and the Rancho Era, 1834-1846" (PDF). Ohlone/Costanoan Indians of the San Francisco Peninsula and their Neighbors, Yesterday and Today. National Park Service. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 Almaguer, Tomás (December 30, 2008). Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (1 ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520257863. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 Hackel, Steven W. "Land, and, Labor, and Production: The Colonial Economy of Spanish and Mexican California". University of California Press. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
 Casas, Maria Raquel (March 28, 2009). Married to A Daughter of the Land: Spanish-Mexican Women and Interethnic Marriage in California, 1820-1880 (1 ed.). University of Nevada Press. ISBN 978-0874177787. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 "Texas Declaration of Independence". The Republic of Texas - The Texas Revolution. Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 "The Republic of Texas - The Texas Revolution". The Battle of San Jacinto. Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 "The Treaties of Velasco". The Republic of Texas - The Texas Revolution. Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 "Tejano Voices and the Demand for Inclusion". Texans' Struggle for Freedom and Equality. Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 Costeloe, Michael P. (August 21, 2008). The Central Republic in Mexico, 1835-1846: 'Hombres de Bien' in the Age of Santa Anna (1 ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521530644. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 "The Mexican American War". American Experience. PBS. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 "Mexican American War". American Experience. PBS. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 "Zachary Taylor". A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War. The University of Texas Arlington. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
 "The Senate Votes for War against Mexico". United States Senate. Retrieved 19 August 2020.
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Russian invasion of Ukraine

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This article is about the invasion that began in 2022. For other Russian invasions, see List of invasions and occupations of Ukraine.
Russian invasion of Ukraine
Part of the Russo-Ukrainian War (outline)

Map of Ukraine as of 18 June 2024 (details):
  Continuously controlled by Ukraine
  Occupied by Russia
  Regained from Russia
Date    24 February 2022 – present
(2 years and 4 months)
Location    
Ukraine, Russia, Black Sea
Status    Ongoing (list of engagements · territorial control · timeline of events)
 
Belligerents
 Russia
 Donetsk PR[a]
 Luhansk PR[a]
Supported by:
 Belarus[b]     Ukraine[c]
Commanders and leaders
 Vladimir Putin
 Aleksandr Dvornikov
 Gennady Zhidko
 Sergey Surovikin
 Valery Gerasimov
 Volodymyr Zelenskyy
 Oleksandr Syrskyi
 Valerii Zaluzhnyi
Units involved
Order of battle    Order of battle
Strength
Pre-invasion at border:
169,000–190,000[d][4][5][6]
Pre-invasion total:
900,000 military[7]
554,000 paramilitary[7]
In February 2023:
300,000+ active personnel in Ukraine[8]    Pre-invasion total:
196,600 military[9]
102,000 paramilitary[9]
July 2022 total:
up to 700,000[10]
September 2023 total:
over 800,000[11]
Casualties and losses
Reports vary widely, see § Casualties for details.
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Russian invasion of Ukraine
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Russo-Ukrainian War (outline)
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Post-Soviet conflicts
On 24 February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine in an escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War that started in 2014. The invasion became the largest attack on a European country since World War II.[12][13][14] It is estimated to have caused tens of thousands of Ukrainian civilian casualties and hundreds of thousands of military casualties. By June 2022, Russian troops occupied about 20% of Ukraine. From a population of 41 million, about 8 million Ukrainians had been internally displaced and more than 8.2 million had fled the country by April 2023, creating Europe's largest refugee crisis since World War II. Extensive environmental damage caused by the war has been widely described as an ecocide. War-related disruption to Ukrainian agriculture and transport contributed to a food crisis worldwide. The Russian attacks on civilians, causing mass civilian casualties and displacement, have been characterised by scholars as genocide and democide against Ukrainians.[15]

Before the invasion, Russian troops massed near Ukraine's borders as Russian officials denied any plans to attack. Russian president Vladimir Putin then announced a "special military operation", saying it was to support the Russian-backed breakaway republics of Donetsk and Luhansk, whose paramilitary forces had been fighting Ukraine in the Donbas conflict since 2014. Putin espoused irredentist views challenging Ukraine's right to exist, and falsely claimed that Ukraine was governed by neo-Nazis persecuting the Russian minority. He said his goal was to "demilitarise and denazify" Ukraine. Russian air strikes and a ground invasion were launched at a northern front from Belarus towards Kyiv, a southern front from Crimea, and an eastern front from the Donbas and towards Kharkiv. Ukraine enacted martial law, ordered a general mobilisation and severed diplomatic relations with Russia.

Russian troops retreated from the northern front by April 2022 after encountering logistical challenges and stiff Ukrainian resistance. On the southern and southeastern fronts, Russia captured Kherson in March and Mariupol in May after a destructive siege. Russia launched a renewed offensive in the Donbas and continued to bomb military and civilian targets far from the front line, including the energy grid through the winter. In late 2022, Ukraine launched successful counteroffensives in the south and east. Soon after, Russia announced the illegal annexation of four partly-occupied regions. In November, Ukraine retook parts of Kherson Oblast, including Kherson city. In June 2023, Ukraine launched another counteroffensive in the southeast, which by the end of the year had petered out with only small amounts of territory retaken.

The invasion was met with widespread international condemnation. The United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the invasion and demanding a full Russian withdrawal in March 2022. The International Court of Justice ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the Council of Europe expelled Russia. Many countries imposed sanctions on Russia and its ally Belarus, and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine. The Baltic states all declared Russia a terrorist state. Protests occurred around the world, with anti-war protesters in Russia being met by mass arrests and the enactment of a law enabling greater media censorship. Over 1,000 companies closed their operations in Russia and Belarus as a result of the invasion. The International Criminal Court (ICC) opened investigations into possible crimes against humanity, war crimes, abduction of children, and genocide. The ICC issued four arrest warrants in that regard: for Putin and Maria Lvova-Belova in March 2023, alleging responsibility for the unlawful deportation of children, as well as for commanders Sergey Kobylash and Viktor Sokolov in 2024, for alleged war crimes.[16]

Background
Main article: Russia–Ukraine relations
International treaties
In return for security guarantees, Ukraine signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1994, agreeing to dismantle the nuclear weapons the former USSR had left in Ukraine.[17] At that time, Russia, the UK, and the USA agreed in the Budapest Memorandum to uphold Ukraine's territorial integrity.[18] In 1999, Russia signed the Charter for European Security, affirming the right of each state "to choose or change its security arrangements" and join alliances.[19] In May 2002, Putin was asked for his views on the future of Ukraine's relations with NATO. He replied, "Ukraine has its own relations with NATO; there is the Ukraine-NATO Council...the decision is to be taken by NATO and Ukraine. It is a matter for those two partners."[20]

However, when Ukraine and Georgia sought to join NATO in 2008, Putin warned that their membership would be a threat to Russia.[21] Some NATO members worried about antagonising Russia.[22] At the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO refused to offer Ukraine and Georgia membership. However, a declaration issued by participating Heads of State and Government asserted collective agreement that Ukraine would become a NATO member.[23] Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov said Russia would do everything it could to prevent this.[24] Putin claimed that NATO members had promised in 1990 not to let Eastern European countries join. No such provision was included in any treaty signed by Russia or NATO.[25]

In an interview published October 2014, former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev was asked why he did not insist upon legally encoding former U.S. Secretary of State James Baker's alleged 1990 promise[26] that "NATO will not move one inch further east."[27] Gorbachev responded,
The topic of “NATO expansion” was not discussed at all, and it wasn’t brought up in those years ... Another issue we brought up was discussed: making sure that NATO’s military structures would not advance and that additional armed forces from the alliance would not be deployed on the territory of the then-GDR after German reunification ... Everything that could have been and needed to be done to solidify that political obligation was done ... The decision for the U.S. and its allies to expand NATO into the east was decisively made in 1993. I called this a big mistake from the very beginning. It was definitely a violation of the spirit of the statements and assurances made to us in 1990.

(See also: Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine § Allegations of NATO aggression)

Ukrainian revolution, Russian intervention in Crimea and Donbas
Main article: Russo-Ukrainian War

Ukraine, with the annexed Crimea in the south and two Russia-backed separatist republics in Donbas in the east
In 2013, Ukraine's parliament overwhelmingly approved finalising an association agreement with the European Union (EU).[28] Russia had put pressure on Ukraine to reject it.[29] Kremlin adviser Sergei Glazyev warned in September 2013 that if Ukraine signed the EU agreement, Russia would no longer acknowledge Ukraine's borders.[30] In November, Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych suddenly withdrew from signing the agreement,[31] choosing closer ties to the Russian-led Eurasian Economic Union instead. This coerced withdrawal triggered a wave of protests known as Euromaidan, culminating in the Revolution of Dignity in February 2014. Yanukovych was removed from power by parliament and fled to Russia.

Russian-backed separatist forces during the War in Donbas in 2015
Pro-Russian unrest immediately followed in eastern and southern Ukraine. Russian soldiers with no insignia occupied the Ukrainian territory of Crimea, and seized the Crimean Parliament.[32] Russia annexed Crimea in March 2014, after a widely disputed referendum. The war in Donbas began in April 2014 when armed Russian-backed separatists seized Ukrainian government buildings and proclaimed the independent Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic.[33][34] Russian troops were directly involved in these conflicts.[35] The ceasefires of the Minsk agreements, signed in September 2014 and February 2015 in a bid to stop the fighting, repeatedly failed.[36]

The annexation of Crimea and the war in Donbas sparked a wave of Russian nationalism and Russian fascism, with calls to annex more Ukrainian land for Novorossiya (New Russia).[37] Analyst Vladimir Socor called Putin's 2014 speech following the annexation a "manifesto of Greater-Russia Irredentism".[38] Putin referred to the Kosovo independence precedent and NATO bombing of Yugoslavia as a justification for his involvement in the annexation of Crimea and the war in Donbas.[39][40][41][42]

Because of Russia's occupation of Crimea and its invasion of the Donbas, Ukraine's parliament voted in December 2014 to remove the neutrality clause from the Constitution and to seek Ukraine's membership in NATO.[43][44]

Prelude
Main articles: Prelude to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russia–NATO relations, Ukraine–NATO relations, Enlargement of NATO, and NATO open door policy

Russian military build-up around Ukraine as of 3 December 2021
There was a massive Russian military build-up near the Ukraine border in March and April 2021,[45] and again in both Russia and Belarus from October 2021 onward.[46] Members of the Russian government repeatedly denied having plans to invade or attack Ukraine, with denials being issued up to the day before the invasion.[47][48][49] The decision to invade Ukraine was reportedly made by Putin and a small group of war hawks or siloviki in Putin's inner circle, including national security adviser Nikolai Patrushev and defence minister Sergei Shoigu.[50]

In July 2021, Putin published an essay "On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians", in which he called Ukraine "historically Russian lands" and claimed there is "no historical basis" for the "idea of Ukrainian people as a nation separate from the Russians".[51][52] Days before the invasion, Putin claimed that Ukraine never had "real statehood" and that modern Ukraine was a mistake created by the Russian Bolsheviks.[53] American historian Timothy Snyder described Putin's ideas as imperialism.[54] British journalist Edward Lucas described it as historical revisionism. Other observers found that Russia's leadership held a distorted view of Ukraine, as well as of its own history,[55] and that these distortions were propagated through the state.[56]

During the second build-up, Russia demanded that NATO end all activity in Eastern Europe and ban Ukraine or any former Soviet state from ever joining NATO.[57] Russia threatened an unspecified military response if NATO followed an "aggressive line."[58] These demands were widely seen as non-viable; Eastern European states have willingly joined NATO for security reasons, and their governments sought protection from Russian irredentism.[59] A treaty to prevent Ukraine joining would go against NATO's "open door" policy, despite NATO's unenthusiastic response to Ukrainian requests to join.[60] NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg replied that "Russia has no say" on whether Ukraine joins, and that "Russia has no right to establish a sphere of influence to try to control their neighbours."[61] NATO's official policy is that it does not seek confrontation, and NATO and Russia had co-operated until Russia annexed Crimea.[62] NATO offered to improve communication with Russia to discuss missile placements and military exercises, as long as Russia withdrew troops from Ukraine's borders,[63] but Russia did not do so.

French President Emmanuel Macron and German Chancellor Olaf Scholz both made efforts in February 2022 to prevent war.[64] Macron met Putin but failed to dissuade him from the invasion. Scholz warned Putin heavy sanctions would be imposed should he invade, and told Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy to declare Ukraine a neutral state and renounce its aspirations to join NATO. Zelenskyy replied that Putin could not be trusted to uphold such a settlement.[65] Ukraine had been a neutral country in 2014 when Russia occupied Crimea and invaded the Donbas.[66][67] On 19 February, Zelenskyy made a speech at the Munich Security Conference, calling for Western powers to drop their policy of "appeasement" towards Moscow and implement a clear time-frame for when Ukraine could join NATO.[68]

Putin's invasion announcement
Main article: On conducting a special military operation
On 21 February, Putin announced Russian diplomatic recognition of the Russian-controlled territories of Ukraine as independent states: the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic. The following day, Russia announced that it was sending troops into these territories as "peacekeepers",[69] and the Federation Council of Russia authorised the use of military force abroad.[70]

Putin's address to the nation on 24 February 2022. Minutes after Putin's announcement, the invasion began.
Before 5 a.m. Kyiv time on 24 February, Putin, in another speech, announced a "special military operation", which "effectively declar[ed] war on Ukraine."[71][72] Putin said the operation was to "protect the people" of the Russian-controlled breakaway republics. He falsely claimed that they had "been facing humiliation and genocide perpetrated by the Kyiv regime."[73] Putin also falsely claimed that Ukrainian government officials were neo-Nazis under Western control, that Ukraine was developing nuclear weapons, and that NATO was building up military infrastructure in Ukraine to threaten Russia.[74] He said Russia sought the "demilitarisation and denazification" of Ukraine, and espoused views challenging Ukraine's right to exist.[75][76] Putin said he had no plans to occupy Ukraine and supported the right of the Ukrainian people to self-determination.[74] Russian missiles struck targets throughout Ukraine,[77] and Russian troops invaded from the north, east, and south.[78] Russia did not officially declare war.[79] Reports of an alleged leak of Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) documents by US intelligence sources said that the FSB had not been aware of Putin's plan to invade Ukraine.[80]

Strength
The strength of Russian invading forces, including Russia-controlled "people's militias" of DPR and LPR, is estimated at 190,000 personnel. The strength of Russian forces fighting at 24 February 2024 is estimated at 500,000.[81]

Timeline
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
For a more comprehensive list, see List of military engagements during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
The invasion, described as the biggest attack on a European country since the Second World War, began at dawn on 24 February.[71][82] Russia launched a simultaneous ground and air campaign, commencing air and missile strikes across Ukraine,[83][84] with some rockets reaching as far west as Lviv.[85] It is Russia's largest combined arms operation since the Battle of Berlin in 1945.[86] Fighting began in Luhansk Oblast at 3:40 a.m. Kyiv time near Milove on the border with Russia.[87] The main infantry and tank attacks were launched in four spearheads, creating a northern front launched towards Kyiv from Belarus, a southern front from Crimea, a southeastern front from Russian-controlled Donbas, and an eastern front from Russia towards Kharkiv and Sumy.[88] Russian vehicles were subsequently marked with a white Z military symbol (a non-Cyrillic letter), believed to be a measure to prevent friendly fire.[89]

Immediately after the invasion began, Zelenskyy declared martial law in Ukraine.[90] The same evening, he ordered a general mobilisation of all Ukrainian males between 18 and 60 years old,[91] prohibiting them from leaving the country.[92] Wagner Group mercenaries and Kadyrovites contracted by the Kremlin reportedly made several attempts to assassinate Zelenskyy, including an operation involving several hundred mercenaries meant to infiltrate Kyiv with the aim of killing the Ukrainian president.[93] The Ukrainian government said anti-war officials within Russia's FSB shared the plans with them.[94]

The Russian invasion was unexpectedly met by fierce Ukrainian resistance.[95] In Kyiv, Russia failed to take the city and was repulsed in the battles of Irpin, Hostomel, and Bucha. The Russians tried to encircle the capital, but its defenders under Oleksandr Syrskyi held their ground, effectively using Western Javelin anti-tank missiles and Stinger anti-aircraft missiles to thin Russian supply lines and stall the offensive.[96]

On the southern front, Russian forces had captured the regional capital of Kherson by 2 March. A column of Russian tanks and armoured vehicles was ambushed on 9 March in Brovary and sustained heavy losses that forced them to retreat.[97] The Russian army adopted siege tactics on the western front around the key cities of Chernihiv, Sumy and Kharkiv, but failed to capture them due to stiff resistance and logistical setbacks.[98] In Mykolaiv Oblast, Russian forces advanced as far as Voznesensk, but were repelled and pushed back south of Mykolaiv. On 25 March, the Russian Defence Ministry stated that the first stage of the "military operation" in Ukraine was "generally complete", that the Ukrainian military forces had suffered serious losses, and the Russian military would now concentrate on the "liberation of Donbas."[99] The "first stage" of the invasion was conducted on four fronts, including one towards western Kyiv from Belarus by the Russian Eastern Military District, comprising the 29th, 35th, and 36th Combined Arms Armies. A second axis, deployed towards eastern Kyiv from Russia by the Central Military District (northeastern front), comprised the 41st Combined Arms Army and the 2nd Guards Combined Arms Army.[100]

A third axis was deployed towards Kharkiv by the Western Military District (eastern front), with the 1st Guards Tank Army and 20th Combined Arms Army. A fourth, southern front originating in occupied Crimea and Russia's Rostov oblast with an eastern axis towards Odesa and a western area of operations toward Mariupol was opened by the Southern Military District, including the 58th, 49th, and 8th Combined Arms Army, the latter also commanding the 1st and 2nd Army Corps of the Russian separatist forces in Donbas.[100] By 7 April, Russian troops deployed to the northern front by the Russian Eastern Military District pulled back from the Kyiv offensive, reportedly to resupply and redeploy to the Donbas region in an effort to reinforce the renewed invasion of southeastern Ukraine. The northeastern front, including the Central Military District, was similarly withdrawn for resupply and redeployment to southeastern Ukraine.[100][101] On 26 April, delegates from the US and 40 allied nations met at Ramstein Air Base in Germany to discuss the formation of a coalition that would provide economic support in addition to military supplies and refitting to Ukraine.[102] Following Putin's Victory Day speech in early May, US Director of National Intelligence Avril Haines said no short term resolution to the invasion should be expected.[103]

President Volodymyr Zelenskyy with members of the Ukrainian Army on 18 June 2022
Ukraine's reliance on Western-supplied equipment constrained operational effectiveness, as supplying countries feared that Ukraine would use Western-made matériel to strike targets in Russia.[104] Military experts disagreed on the future of the conflict; some suggested that Ukraine should trade territory for peace,[105] while others believed that Ukraine could maintain its resistance due to Russian losses.[106]

By 30 May, disparities between Russian and Ukrainian artillery were apparent, with Ukrainian artillery being vastly outgunned, in terms of both range and number.[104] In response to US President Joe Biden's indication that enhanced artillery would be provided to Ukraine, Putin said that Russia would expand its invasion front to include new cities in Ukraine. In apparent retribution, Putin ordered a missile strike against Kyiv on 6 June after not directly attacking the city for several weeks.[107] On 10 June 2022, deputy head of the SBU Vadym Skibitsky stated that during the Severodonetsk campaign, the frontlines were where the future of the invasion would be decided: "This is an artillery war now, and we are losing in terms of artillery. Everything now depends on what [the west] gives us. Ukraine has one artillery piece to 10 to 15 Russian artillery pieces. Our western partners have given us about 10% of what they have."[108]

On 29 June, Reuters reported that US Intelligence Director Avril Haines, in an update of past U.S. intelligence assessments on the Russian invasion, said that U.S. intelligence agencies agree that the invasion will continue "for an extended period of time ... In short, the picture remains pretty grim and Russia's attitude toward the West is hardening."[109] On 5 July, BBC reported that extensive destruction by the Russian invasion would cause immense financial damage to Ukraine's reconstruction economy, with Ukrainian Prime Minister Denys Shmyhal telling nations at a reconstruction conference in Switzerland that Ukraine needs $750bn for a recovery plan and Russian oligarchs should contribute to the cost.[110]

Initial invasion (24 February – 7 April)
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (24 February – 7 April 2022).

Animated map of the Russian invasion from 24 February to 7 April 2022
The invasion began on 24 February, launched out of Belarus to target Kyiv, and from the northeast against the city of Kharkiv. The southeastern front was conducted as two separate spearheads, from Crimea and the southeast against Luhansk and Donetsk.

Kyiv and northern front
Further information: Capture of Chernobyl, Battle of Kyiv (2022), and Bucha massacre

The Antonov An-225 Mriya, the largest aircraft ever built, was destroyed during the Battle of Antonov Airport.
Russian efforts to capture Kyiv included a probative spearhead on 24 February, from Belarus south along the west bank of the Dnipro River. The apparent intent was to encircle the city from the west, supported by two separate axes of attack from Russia along the east bank of the Dnipro: the western at Chernihiv, and from the east at Sumy. These were likely intended to encircle Kyiv from the northeast and east.[83][84]

Russia tried to seize Kyiv quickly, with Spetsnaz infiltrating into the city supported by airborne operations and a rapid mechanised advance from the north, but failed.[111][112] The United States contacted Zelenskyy and offered to help him flee the country, lest the Russian Army attempt to kidnap or kill him on seizing Kyiv; Zelenskyy responded that "The fight is here; I need ammunition, not a ride."[113] The Washington Post, which described the quote as "one of the most-cited lines of the Russian invasion", was not entirely sure of the comment's accuracy. Reporter Glenn Kessler said it came from "a single source, but on the surface it appears to be a good one."[114] Russian forces advancing on Kyiv from Belarus gained control of the ghost town of Chernobyl.[115] Russian Airborne Forces attempted to seize two key airfields near Kyiv, launching an airborne assault on Antonov Airport,[116] and a similar landing at Vasylkiv, near Vasylkiv Air Base, on 26 February.[117]

By early March, Russian advances along the west side of the Dnipro were limited by Ukrainian defences.[84][83] As of 5 March, a large Russian convoy, reportedly 64 kilometres (40 mi) long, had made little progress toward Kyiv.[118] The London-based think tank Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) assessed Russian advances from the north and east as "stalled."[119] Advances from Chernihiv largely halted as a siege began there. Russian forces continued to advance on Kyiv from the northwest, capturing Bucha, Hostomel, and Vorzel by 5 March,[120][121] though Irpin remained contested as of 9 March.[122] By 11 March, the lengthy convoy had largely dispersed and taken cover.[123] On 16 March, Ukrainian forces began a counter-offensive to repel Russian forces.[124] Unable to achieve a quick victory in Kyiv, Russian forces switched their strategy to indiscriminate bombing and siege warfare.[125][126] On 25 March, a Ukrainian counter-offensive retook several towns to the east and west of Kyiv, including Makariv.[127][128] Russian troops in the Bucha area retreated north at the end of March. Ukrainian forces entered the city on 1 April.[129] Ukraine said it had recaptured the entire region around Kyiv, including Irpin, Bucha, and Hostomel, and uncovered evidence of war crimes in Bucha.[130] On 6 April, NATO secretary-general Jens Stoltenberg said that the Russian "retraction, resupply, and redeployment" of their troops from the Kyiv area should be interpreted as an expansion of Putin's plans for Ukraine, by redeploying and concentrating his forces on eastern Ukraine.[101] Kyiv was generally left free from attack apart from isolated missile strikes. One did occur while UN Secretary-General António Guterres was visiting Kyiv on 28 April to discuss the survivors of the siege of Mariupol with Zelenskyy. One person was killed and several were injured in the attack.[131]

Northeastern front
Further information: Siege of Chernihiv and Battle of Sumy
See also: Russian occupation of Sumy Oblast
Russian forces advanced into Chernihiv Oblast on 24 February, besieging its administrative capital within four days of fighting. On 25 February Ukrainian forces lost control over Konotop.[132][133] As street fighting took place in the city of Sumy, just 35 kilometres (22 mi) from the Russo-Ukrainian border, Ukrainian forces claimed that on 28 February that 100 Russian armoured vehicles had been destroyed and dozens of soldiers captured following a Bayraktar TB2 drone and artillery attack on a large Russian column near Lebedyn in Sumy Oblast.[134] Russian forces also attacked Okhtyrka, deploying thermobaric weapons.[135]

On 4 March, Frederick Kagan wrote that the Sumy axis was then "the most successful and dangerous Russian avenue of advance on Kyiv", and commented that the geography favoured mechanised advances as the terrain "is flat and sparsely populated, offering few good defensive positions."[83] Travelling along highways, Russian forces reached Brovary, an eastern suburb of Kyiv, on 4 March.[84][83] The Pentagon confirmed on 6 April that the Russian army had left Chernihiv Oblast, but Sumy Oblast remained contested.[136] On 7 April, the governor of Sumy Oblast said that Russian troops were gone, but had left behind rigged explosives and other hazards.[137]

Southern front
Further information: Siege of Mariupol, 2022 bombing of Odesa, Battle of Kherson, and Battle of Enerhodar
See also: Russian occupation of Kherson Oblast and Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast

A destroyed Russian BMP-3 near Mariupol, 7 March 2022
On 24 February, Russian forces took control of the North Crimean Canal, allowing Crimea to obtain water from the Dnieper, which had been cut off since 2014.[138] On 26 February, the siege of Mariupol began as the attack moved east linking to separatist-held Donbas.[135][139] En route, Russian forces entered Berdiansk and captured it.[140] On 25 February, Russian units from the DPR were fighting near Pavlopil as they moved on Mariupol.[141] By evening, the Russian Navy began an amphibious assault on the coast of the Sea of Azov 70 kilometres (43 mi) west of Mariupol. A US defence official said that Russian forces were deploying thousands of marines from this beachhead.[142]

The Russian 22nd Army Corps approached the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant on 26 February[143] and besieged Enerhodar. A fire began,[144][145] but the Ukrainian military said that essential equipment was undamaged.[146] A third Russian attack group from Crimea moved northwest and captured the bridge over the Dnieper.[147] On 2 March, Russian troops took Kherson; this was the first major city to fall to Russian forces.[148] Russian troops moved on Mykolaiv and attacked it two days later. They were repelled by Ukrainian forces.[149]

After renewed missile attacks on 14 March in Mariupol, the Ukrainian government said more than 2,500 had died.[150] By 18 March, Mariupol was completely encircled and fighting reached the city centre, hampering efforts to evacuate civilians.[151] On 20 March, an art school sheltering around 400 people, was destroyed by Russian bombs.[152] The Russians demanded surrender, and the Ukrainians refused.[88][153] On 27 March, Ukrainian deputy prime minister Olha Stefanishyna said that "(m)ore than 85 percent of the whole town is destroyed."[154]

Putin told Emmanuel Macron in a phone call on 29 March that the bombardment of Mariupol would only end when the Ukrainians surrendered.[155] On 1 April, Russian troops refused safe passage into Mariupol to 50 buses sent by the United Nations to evacuate civilians, as peace talks continued in Istanbul.[156] On 3 April, following the retreat of Russian forces from Kyiv, Russia expanded its attack on southern Ukraine further west, with bombardment and strikes against Odesa, Mykolaiv, and the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant.[157][158]

Eastern front
Further information: Battle of Kharkiv (2022), Battle of Izium, and Millerovo air base attack
See also: Russian occupation of Kharkiv Oblast

Russian bombardment on the outskirts of Kharkiv, 1 March 2022
In the east, Russian troops attempted to capture Kharkiv, less than 35 kilometres (22 mi) from the Russian border,[159] and met strong Ukrainian resistance. On 25 February, the Millerovo air base was attacked by Ukrainian military forces with OTR-21 Tochka missiles, which according to Ukrainian officials, destroyed several Russian Air Force planes and started a fire.[85] On 1 March, Denis Pushilin, head of the DPR, announced that DPR forces had almost completely surrounded the city of Volnovakha.[160] On 2 March, Russian forces were repelled from Sievierodonetsk during an attack against the city.[161] On the same day, Ukrainian forces initiated a counter-offensive on Horlivka,[162] controlled by the DPR.[163] Izium was captured by Russian forces on 1 April[164] after a monthlong battle.[165]

On 25 March, the Russian defence ministry said it would seek to occupy major cities in eastern Ukraine.[166] On 31 March, PBS News reported renewed shelling and missile attacks in Kharkiv, as bad or worse than before, as peace talks with Russia were to resume in Istanbul.[167]

Amid the heightened Russian shelling of Kharkiv on 31 March, Russia reported a helicopter strike against an oil supply depot approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) north of the border in Belgorod, and accused Ukraine of the attack.[168] Ukraine denied responsibility.[169] By 7 April, the renewed massing of Russian invasion troops and tank divisions around the towns of Izium, Sloviansk, and Kramatorsk prompted Ukrainian government officials to advise the remaining residents near the eastern border of Ukraine to evacuate to western Ukraine within 2–3 days, given the absence of arms and munitions previously promised to Ukraine by then.[170]

Southeastern front (8 April – 5 September)
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (8 April – 28 August 2022).

Animated map of the Russian invasion from 7 April to 5 September 2022
By 17 April, Russian progress on the southeastern front appeared to be impeded by opposing Ukrainian forces in the large, heavily fortified Azovstal steel mill and surrounding area in Mariupol.[171]

On 19 April, The New York Times confirmed that Russia had launched a renewed invasion front referred to as an "eastern assault" across a 480-kilometre (300 mi) front extending from Kharkiv to Donetsk and Luhansk, with simultaneous missile attacks again directed at Kyiv in the north and Lviv in western Ukraine.[172] As of 30 April, a NATO official described Russian advances as "uneven" and "minor."[173] An anonymous US Defence official called the Russian offensive "very tepid", "minimal at best", and "anaemic."[174] In June 2022 the chief spokesman for the Russian Ministry of Defence Igor Konashenkov revealed that Russian troops were divided between the Army Groups "Centre" commanded by Colonel General Aleksander Lapin and "South" commanded by Army General Sergey Surovikin.[175] On 20 July, Lavrov announced that Russia would respond to the increased military aid being received by Ukraine from abroad as justifying the expansion of its special military operation to include objectives in both the Zaporizhzhia and Kherson regions.[176]

Russian Ground Forces started recruiting volunteer battalions from the regions in June 2022 to create a new 3rd Army Corps within the Western Military District, with a planned strength estimated at 15,500–60,000 personnel.[177] Its units were deployed to the front around the time of Ukraine's 9 September Kharkiv oblast counteroffensive, in time to join the Russian retreat, leaving behind tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, and personnel carriers: the 3rd Army Corps "melted away" according to Forbes, having little or no impact on the battlefield along with other irregular forces.[178]

Fall of Mariupol
Further information: Siege of Mariupol
On 13 April, Russian forces intensified their attack on the Azovstal Iron and Steel Works in Mariupol, and the remaining Ukrainian personnel defending it.[179] By 17 April, Russian forces had surrounded the factory. Ukrainian prime minister Denys Shmyhal said that the Ukrainian soldiers had vowed to ignore the renewed ultimatum to surrender and to fight to the last soul.[180] On 20 April, Putin said that the siege of Mariupol could be considered tactically complete, since the 500 Ukrainian troops entrenched in bunkers within the Azovstal iron works and estimated 1,000 Ukrainian civilians were completely sealed off from any type of relief.[181]

After consecutive meetings with Putin and Zelenskyy, UN Secretary-General Guterres on 28 April said he would attempt to organise an emergency evacuation of survivors from Azovstal in accordance with assurances he had received from Putin on his visit to the Kremlin.[182] On 30 April, Russian troops allowed civilians to leave under UN protection.[183] By 3 May, after allowing approximately 100 Ukrainian civilians to depart from the Azovstal steel factory, Russian troops renewed their bombardment of the steel factory.[184] On 6 May, The Daily Telegraph reported that Russia had used thermobaric bombs against the remaining Ukrainian soldiers, who had lost contact with the Kyiv government; in his last communications, Zelenskyy authorised the commander of the besieged steel factory to surrender as necessary under the pressure of increased Russian attacks.[185] On 7 May, the Associated Press reported that all civilians were evacuated from the Azovstal steel works at the end of the three-day ceasefire.[186]

A children's hospital in Mariupol after a Russian airstrike
After the last civilians evacuated from the Azovstal bunkers, nearly two thousand Ukrainian soldiers remained barricaded there, 700 of them injured. They were able to communicate a plea for a military corridor to evacuate, as they expected summary execution if they surrendered to Russian forces.[187] Reports of dissent within the Ukrainian troops at Azovstal were reported by Ukrainska Pravda on 8 May indicating that the commander of the Ukrainian marines assigned to defend the Azovstal bunkers made an unauthorised acquisition of tanks, munitions, and personnel, broke out from the position there and fled. The remaining soldiers spoke of a weakened defensive position in Azovstal as a result, which allowed progress to advancing Russian lines of attack.[188] Ilia Somolienko, deputy commander of the remaining Ukrainian troops barricaded at Azovstal, said: "We are basically here dead men. Most of us know this and it's why we fight so fearlessly."[189]

On 16 May, the Ukrainian General staff announced that the Mariupol garrison had "fulfilled its combat mission" and that final evacuations from the Azovstal steel factory had begun. The military said that 264 service members were evacuated to Olenivka under Russian control, while 53 of them who were "seriously injured" had been taken to a hospital in Novoazovsk also controlled by Russian forces.[190][191] Following the evacuation of Ukrainian personnel from Azovstal, Russian and DPR forces fully controlled all areas of Mariupol. The end of the battle also brought an end to the Siege of Mariupol. Russia press secretary Dmitry Peskov said Russian President Vladimir Putin had guaranteed that the fighters who surrendered would be treated "in accordance with international standards" while Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy said in an address that "the work of bringing the boys home continues, and this work needs delicacy—and time." Some prominent Russian lawmakers called on the government to deny prisoner exchanges for members of the Azov Regiment.[192]

Fall of Sievierodonetsk and Lysychansk
Main article: Battle of Donbas (2022–present)
Further information: Battle of Popasna, Kramatorsk railway station attack, Battle of Sievierodonetsk (2022), and Battle of Lysychansk

Military control around Donbas as of 24 March 2023: pink highlights areas held by the DNR, LNR, and Russia, yellow highlights areas held by the Ukrainian government.
A Russian missile attack on Kramatorsk railway station in the city of Kramatorsk took place on 8 April, reportedly killing at least 52 people[193] and injuring as many as 87 to 300.[194] On 11 April, Zelenskyy said that Ukraine expected a major new Russian offensive in the east.[195] American officials said that Russia had withdrawn or been repulsed elsewhere in Ukraine, and therefore was preparing a retraction, resupply, and redeployment of infantry and tank divisions to the southeastern Ukraine front.[196][197] Military satellites photographed extensive Russian convoys of infantry and mechanised units deploying south from Kharkiv to Izium on 11 April, apparently part of the planned Russian redeployment of its northeastern troops to the southeastern front of the invasion.[198]

On 18 April, with Mariupol almost entirely overtaken by Russian forces, the Ukrainian government announced that the second phase of the reinforced invasion of the Donetsk, Luhansk and Kharkiv regions had intensified with expanded invasion forces occupying of the Donbas.[199]

On 22 May, the BBC reported that after the fall of Mariupol, Russia had intensified offensives in Luhansk and Donetsk while concentrating missile attacks and intense artillery fire on Sievierodonetsk, the largest city under Ukrainian control in Luhansk province.[200]

On 23 May, Russian forces were reported entering the city of Lyman, fully capturing the city by 26 May.[201][202] Ukrainian forces were reported leaving Sviatohirsk.[203] By 24 May, Russian forces captured the city of Svitlodarsk.[204] On 30 May, Reuters reported that Russian troops had breached the outskirts of Sievierodonetsk.[205] By 2 June, The Washington Post reported that Sievierodonetsk was on the brink of capitulation to Russian occupation with over 80 per cent of the city in the hands of Russian troops.[206] On 3 June, Ukrainian forces reportedly began a counter-attack in Sievierodonetsk. By 4 June, Ukrainian government sources claimed 20% or more of the city had been recaptured.[207]

On 12 June, it was reported that possibly as many as 800 Ukrainian civilians (as per Ukrainian estimates) and 300–400 soldiers (as per Russian sources) were besieged at the Azot chemical factory in Severodonetsk.[208][209] With the Ukrainian defences of Severodonetsk faltering, Russian invasion troops began intensifying their attack upon the neighbouring city of Lysychansk as their next target city in the invasion.[210] On 20 June it was reported that Russian troops continued to tighten their grip on Severodonetsk by capturing surrounding villages and hamlets surrounding the city, most recently the village of Metelkine.[211]

On 24 June, CNN reported that, amid continuing scorched-earth tactics being applied by advancing Russian troops, Ukraine's armed forces were ordered to evacuate the Severodonetsk; several hundred civilians taking refuge in the Azot chemical plant were left behind in the withdrawal, with some comparing their plight to that of the civilians at the Azovstal steel works in Mariupol in May.[212] On 3 July, CBS announced that the Russian defence ministry claimed that the city of Lysychansk had been captured and occupied by Russian forces.[213] On 4 July, The Guardian reported that after the fall of the Luhansk oblast, that Russian invasion troops would continue their invasion into the adjacent Donetsk Oblast to attack the cities of Sloviansk and Bakhmut.[214]

Kharkiv front
Main article: Battle of Kharkiv (2022)
Further information: Russian occupation of Kharkiv Oblast

Saltivka residential area after the battle of Kharkiv on 19 May 2022
On 14 April, Ukrainian troops reportedly blew up a bridge between Kharkiv and Izium used by Russian forces to redeploy troops to Izium, impeding the Russian convoy.[215]

On 5 May, David Axe writing for Forbes stated that the Ukrainian army had concentrated its 4th and 17th Tank Brigades and the 95th Air Assault Brigade around Izium for possible rearguard action against the deployed Russian troops in the area; Axe added that the other major concentration of Ukraine's forces around Kharkiv included the 92nd and 93rd Mechanised Brigades which could similarly be deployed for rearguard action against Russian troops around Kharkiv or link up with Ukrainian troops contemporaneously being deployed around Izium.[216]

On 13 May, BBC reported that Russian troops in Kharkiv were being retracted and redeployed to other fronts in Ukraine following the advances of Ukrainian troops into surrounding cities and Kharkiv itself, which included the destruction of strategic pontoon bridges built by Russian troops to cross over the Seversky Donets river and previously used for rapid tank deployment in the region.[217]

Kherson-Mykolaiv front
Further information: 2022 Kherson counteroffensive, 2022 bombing of Odesa, and 2022 Transnistria attacks
See also: Russian occupation of Kherson Oblast

Ukrainian soldiers in reclaimed Vysokopillia in September 2022 during the 2022 Kherson counteroffensive
Missile attacks and bombardment of the key cities of Mykolaiv and Odesa continued as the second phase of the invasion began.[172] On 22 April 2022, Russia's Brigadier General Rustam Minnekayev in a defence ministry meeting said that Russia planned to extend its Mykolaiv–Odesa front after the siege of Mariupol further west to include the breakaway region of Transnistria on the Ukrainian border with Moldova.[218] The Ministry of Defence of Ukraine called this plan imperialism and said that it contradicted previous Russian claims that it did not have territorial ambitions in Ukraine and also that the statement admitted that "the goal of the 'second phase' of the war is not victory over the mythical Nazis, but simply the occupation of eastern and southern Ukraine."[218] Georgi Gotev of EURACTIV noted on 22 April that Russian occupation from Odesa to Transnistria would transform Ukraine into a landlocked nation with no practical access to the Black Sea.[219] Russia resumed its missile strikes on Odesa on 24 April, destroying military facilities and causing two dozen civilian casualties.[220]

Explosions destroyed two Russian broadcast towers in Transnistria on 27 April that had primarily rebroadcast Russian television programming, Ukrainian sources said.[221] Russian missile attacks at the end of April destroyed runways in Odesa.[222] In the week of 10 May, Ukrainian troops began to dislodge Russian forces from Snake Island in the Black Sea approximately 200 kilometres (120 mi) from Odesa.[223] Russia said on 30 June 2022 that it had withdrawn its troops from the island, once their objectives had been completed.[224]

On 23 July, CNBC reported a Russian missile strike on the Ukrainian port of Odesa, swiftly condemned by world leaders amid a recent U.N. and Turkish-brokered deal to secure a sea corridor for exports of grains and other foodstuffs.[225] On 31 July, CNN reported significantly intensified rocket attacks and bombing of Mykolaiv by Russians, which also killed Ukrainian grain tycoon Oleksiy Vadaturskyi.[226]

Zaporizhzhia front
See also: Russian occupation of Zaporizhzhia Oblast

French president Emmanuel Macron called the Russian missile attack on a shopping mall in Kremenchuk on 28 June 2022 a "war crime"
Russian forces continued to fire missiles and drop bombs on the key cities of Dnipro and Zaporizhzhia.[172] Russian missiles destroyed the Dnipro International Airport on 10 April 2022.[227] On 2 May, the UN, reportedly with the cooperation of Russian troops, evacuated about 100 survivors from the siege of Mariupol to the village of Bezimenne near Donetsk, from whence they would move to Zaporizhzhia.[228] On 28 June, Reuters reported that a Russian missile attack on the city of Kremenchuk northwest of Zaporizhzhia detonated in a public mall and caused at least 18 deaths. France's Emmanuel Macron called it a "war crime."[229]

Ukrainian nuclear agency Energoatom called the situation at the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant "extremely tense", although it was still operated by its Ukrainian staff. As many as 500 Russian soldiers controlled the plant; Kyiv's nuclear agency said they were shelling nearby areas and storing weapons and "missile systems" there. Almost the entire country went on air raid alert. "They already shell the other side of the river Dnipro and the territory of Nikopol," Energoatom president Pedro Kotin said.[230] Russia agreed on 19 August to allow IAEA inspectors access to the Zaporizhzhia plant after a phone call from Macron to Putin. As of July 2023, however, access to the plant remained limited and required extensive negotiation.[231]

Russia reported that 12 attacks with explosions from 50 artillery shells had been recorded by 18 August at the plant and the company town of Enerhodar.[232] Tobias Ellwood, chair of the UK's Defence Select Committee, said on 19 August that any deliberate damage to the Zaporizhzhia nuclear plant that could cause radiation leaks would be a breach of Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty, under which an attack on a member state of NATO is an attack on them all. US congressman Adam Kinzinger said the following day that any radiation leak would kill people in NATO countries, an automatic activation of Article 5.[233][234]

Killed Ukrainian civilians during the Zaporizhzhia civilian convoy attack by Russian Army in September 2022
Shelling hit coal ash dumps at the neighbouring coal-fired power station on 23 August, and the ash was on fire on 25 August. The 750 kV transmission line to the Dniprovska substation, the only one of the four 750 kV transmission lines still undamaged and cut by military action, passes over the ash dumps. At 12:12 p.m. on 25 August, the line was cut off due to the fire, disconnecting the plant and its two operating reactors from the national grid for the first time since its startup in 1985. In response, backup generators and coolant pumps for reactor 5 started up, and reactor 6 reduced generation.[235]

Incoming power was still available across the 330 kV line to the substation at the coal-fired station, so the diesel generators were not essential for cooling reactor cores and spent fuel pools. The 750 kV line and reactor 6 resumed operation at 12:29 p.m., but the line was cut by fire again two hours later. The line, but not the reactors, resumed operation again later that day.[235] On 26 August, one reactor restarted in the afternoon and another in the evening, resuming electricity supplies to the grid.[236] On 29 August 2022, an IAEA team led by Rafael Grossi went to the plant to investigate.[237] Lydie Evrard and Massimo Aparo were also on the team. No leaks had been reported at the plant before their arrival, but shelling had occurred days before.[238]

Russian annexations and occupation losses (6 September – 11 November 2022)
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (29 August – 11 November 2022).

Animated map of the Russian invasion from 5 September 2022 to 11 November 2022
On 6 September 2022, Ukrainian forces launched a surprise counteroffensive in the Kharkiv region, beginning near Balakliia, led by General Syrskyi.[239] An emboldened Kyiv launched a counteroffensive 12 September around Kharkiv successful enough to make Russia admit losing key positions and for The New York Times to say that it dented the image of a "Mighty Putin". Kiev sought more arms from the West to sustain the counteroffensive.[240] On 21 September 2022, Vladimir Putin announced a partial mobilisation and Minister of Defence Sergei Shoigu said 300,000 reservists would be called.[241] He also said that his country would use "all means" to "defend itself." Mykhailo Podolyak, an adviser to Zelenskyy, said that the decision was predictable and that it was an attempt to justify "Russia's failures."[242] British Foreign Office Minister Gillian Keegan called the situation an "escalation",[243] while former Mongolian president Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj accused Russia of using Russian Mongols as "cannon fodder."[244]

Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts
Main article: Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts
In late September 2022, Russian-installed officials in Ukraine organised referendums on the annexation of the occupied territories of Ukraine. These included the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic in Russian occupied Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts of Ukraine, as well as the Russian-appointed military administrations of Kherson Oblast and Zaporizhzhia Oblast. Denounced by Ukraine's government and its allies as sham elections, the elections' official results showed overwhelming majorities in favour of annexation.[245]

On 30 September 2022, Vladimir Putin announced the annexation of Ukraine's Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions in an address to both houses of the Russian parliament.[246] Ukraine, the United States, the European Union and the United Nations all denounced the annexation as illegal.[247]

Zaporizhzhia front
See also: Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant crisis and Zaporizhzhia residential building airstrike

Damage to a residential building in Zaporizhzhia following an airstrike on 9 October 2022.
An IAEA delegation visited the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant on 3 September, and on 6 September reported damage and security threats caused by external shelling and the presence of occupying troops in the plant.[248] On 11 September, at 3:14 a.m., the sixth and final reactor was disconnected from the grid, "completely stopping" the plant. Energoatom said that preparations were "underway for its cooling and transfer to a cold state."[249]

In the early hours of 9 October 2022, Russian Armed Forces carried out an airstrike on a residential building in Zaporizhzhia, killing 13 civilians and injuring 89 others.[250]

Kherson counteroffensive
Main articles: 2022 Kherson counteroffensive and Liberation of Kherson

Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky, participating in reraising the Ukrainian flag in Kherson a few days after the city's liberation
On 29 August, Zelenskyy advisedly vowed the start of a full-scale counteroffensive in the southeast. He first announced a counteroffensive to retake Russian-occupied territory in the south concentrating on the Kherson-Mykolaiv region, a claim that was corroborated by the Ukrainian parliament as well as Operational Command South.[251]

On 4 September, Zelenskyy announced the liberation of two unnamed villages in Kherson Oblast and one in Donetsk Oblast. Ukrainian authorities released a photo showing the raising of the Ukrainian flag in Vysokopillia by Ukrainian forces.[252] Ukrainian attacks also continued along the southern frontline, though reports about territorial changes were largely unverifiable.[253] On 12 September, Zelenskyy said that Ukrainian forces had retaken a total of 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) from Russia, in both the south and the east. The BBC stated that it could not verify these claims.[254]

In October, Ukrainian forces pushed further south towards the city of Kherson, taking control of 1,170 square kilometres (450 sq mi) of territory, with fighting extending to Dudchany.[255][256] On 9 November, defence minister Shoigu ordered Russian forces to leave part of Kherson Oblast, including the city of Kherson, and move to the eastern bank of the Dnieper.[257] On 11 November, Ukrainian troops entered Kherson, as Russia completed its withdrawal. This meant that Russian forces no longer had a foothold on the west (right) bank of the Dnieper.[258]

Kharkiv counteroffensive
Main article: 2022 Kharkiv counteroffensive

   Retained by Ukraine
   Retaken by Ukraine
   Occupied by Russia
Map of the Kharkiv front as of 24 June 2024
Ukrainian forces launched another surprise counteroffensive on 6 September in the Kharkiv region near Balakliia led by General Syrskyi.[239] By 7 September, Ukrainian forces had advanced some 20 kilometres (12 mi) into Russian occupied territory and claimed to have recaptured approximately 400 square kilometres (150 sq mi). Russian commentators said this was likely due to the relocation of Russian forces to Kherson in response to the Ukrainian offensive there.[259] On 8 September, Ukrainian forces captured Balakliia and advanced to within 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) of Kupiansk.[260] Military analysts said Ukrainian forces appeared to be moving towards Kupiansk, a major railway hub, with the aim of cutting off the Russian forces at Izium from the north.[261]

On 9 September, the Russian occupation administration of Kharkiv Oblast announced it would "evacuate" the civilian populations of Izium, Kupiansk and Velykyi Burluk. The Institute for the Study of War (ISW) said it believed Kupiansk would likely fall in the next 72 hours,[262] while Russian reserve units were sent to the area by both road and helicopter.[263] On the morning of 10 September, photos emerged claiming to depict Ukrainian troops raising the Ukrainian flag in the centre of Kupiansk,[264] and the ISW said Ukrainian forces had captured approximately 2,500 square kilometres (970 sq mi) by effectively exploiting their breakthrough.[265] Later in the day, Reuters reported that Russian positions in northeast Ukraine had "collapsed" in the face of the Ukrainian assault, with Russian forces forced to withdraw from their base at Izium after being cut off by the capture of Kupiansk.[266]

By 15 September, an assessment by UK's Ministry of Defence confirmed that Russia had either lost or withdrawn from almost all of their positions west of the Oskil river. The retreating units had also abandoned various high-value military assets.[267] The offensive continued pushing east and by 1 October, Ukrainian Armed Forces had liberated the key city of Lyman.[268]

Winter stalemate, attrition campaign and military surge (12 November 2022 – 7 June 2023)
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (12 November 2022 – 7 June 2023).

Ukrainian and Polish prime ministers shaking hands near Leopard 2 tanks provided by Poland to Ukraine
After the end of the twin Ukrainian counteroffensives, the fighting shifted to a semi-deadlock during the winter,[269] with heavy casualties but reduced motion of the frontline.[270] Russia launched a self-proclaimed winter offensive in eastern Ukraine, but the campaign ended in "disappointment" for Moscow, with limited gains as the offensive stalled.[269][271] Analysts variously blamed the failure on Russia's lack of "trained men", and supply problems with artillery ammunition, among other problems.[269][271] Near the end of May, Mark Galeotti assessed that "after Russia's abortive and ill-conceived winter offensive, which squandered its opportunity to consolidate its forces, Ukraine is in a relatively strong position."[272]

On 7 February, The New York Times reported that Russians had newly mobilised nearly 200,000 soldiers to participate in the offensive in the Donbas, against Ukraine troops already wearied by previous fighting.[273] The Russian private military company Wagner Group took on greater prominence in the war,[274] leading "grinding advances" in Bakhmut with tens of thousands of recruits from prison battalions taking part in "near suicidal" assaults on Ukrainian positions.[271]

In late January 2023, fighting intensified in the southern Zaporizhzhia region, with both sides suffering heavy casualties.[275] In nearby southern parts of Donetsk Oblast, an intense, three-week Russian assault near the coal-mining town of Vuhledar was called the largest tank battle of the war to date, and ended in disaster for Russian forces, who lost "at least 130 tanks and armored personnel carriers" according to Ukrainian commanders. The British Ministry of Defence stated that "a whole Russian brigade was effectively annihilated."[276][277]

Battle of Bakhmut
Main article: Battle of Bakhmut

View of western Bakhmut during the battle, 5 April 2023
Following defeat in Kherson and Kharkiv, Russian and Wagner forces have focused on taking the city of Bakhmut and breaking the half year long stalemate that has prevailed there since the start of the war. Russian forces have sought to encircle the city, attacking from the north via Soledar. After taking heavy casualties, Russian and Wagner forces took control of Soledar on 16 January 2023.[278][279] By early February 2023, Bakhmut was facing attacks from north, south and east, with the sole Ukrainian supply lines coming from Chasiv Yar to the west.[280]

On 3 March 2023, Ukrainian soldiers destroyed two key bridges, creating the possibility for a controlled fighting withdrawal from eastern sectors of Bakhmut.[281] On 4 March, Bakhmut's deputy mayor told news services that there was street fighting in the city.[282] On 7 March, despite the city's near-encirclement, The New York Times reported that Ukrainian commanders were requesting permission from Kyiv to continue fighting against the Russians in Bakhmut.[283]

On 26 March, Wagner Group forces claimed to have fully captured the tactically significant Azom factory in Bakhmut.[284] Appearing before the House Committee on Armed Services on 29 March, General Mark Milley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, reported that, "for about the last 20, 21 days, the Russia have not made any progress whatsoever in and around Bakhmut." Milley described the severe casualties being inflicted upon the Russian forces there as a "slaughter-fest."[285]

By the beginning of May, the ISW assessed that Ukraine controlled only 1.89 square kilometres (0.73 sq mi) of the city, less than five percent.[286] On 18 May 2023, The New York Times reported that Ukrainian forces had launched a local counteroffensive, taking back swathes of territory to the north and south of Bakhmut over the course of a few days.[287]

2023 counteroffensives and summer campaign (8 June 2023 – 1 December 2023)
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (8 June 2023 – 31 August 2023) and Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (1 September – 30 November 2023).
Further information: 2023 Ukrainian counteroffensive

Flood in Kherson Oblast on 10 June 2023 caused by the destruction of the Kakhovka Dam on 6 June 2023
In June 2023, Ukrainian forces gradually launched a series of counteroffensives on multiple fronts, including Donetsk Oblast, Zaporizhzhia Oblast, and others.[288] On 8 June 2023, counteroffensive efforts focused near settlements such as Orikhiv, Tokmak, and Bakhmut.[289] However, counteroffensive operations faced stiff resistance from Russia,[290] and the American think tank Institute for the Study of War described the Russian defensive effort as having "an uncharacteristic degree of coherency."[291] By 12 June, Ukraine reported its fastest advance in seven months, claiming to have liberated several villages and advanced a total of 6.5 km. Russian military bloggers also reported that Ukraine had taken Blahodatne, Makarivka and Neskuchne, and were continuing to push southward.[292] Ukraine continued to liberate settlements over the next few months, raising the Ukrainian flag over the settlement of Robotyne in late August.[293]

A tank in Rostov-on-Don belonging to the Wagner Group decorated with flowers during the Wagner Group rebellion in the summer of 2023
On 24 June, the Wagner Group launched a brief rebellion against the Russian government, capturing several cities in western Russia largely unopposed before marching towards Moscow.[294] This came as the culmination of prolonged infighting and power struggles between Wagner and the Russian Ministry of Defence.[295] After about 24 hours, the Wagner Group backed down[296] and agreed to a peace deal in which Wagner leader Yevgeny Prigozhin would go into exile in Belarus, and his forces would be free from prosecution.[294] On 27 June, the UK's Ministry of Defence reported that Ukraine were "highly likely" to have reclaimed territory in the eastern Donbas region occupied by Russia since 2014 among its advances. Pro-Russian bloggers also reported that Ukrainian forces had made gains in the southern Kherson region, establishing a foothold on the left bank of the Dnipro river after crossing it.[297]

In August, The Guardian reported that Ukraine had become the most mined country in the world, with Russia laying millions of mines attempting to thwart Ukraine's counteroffensive. The vast minefields forced Ukraine to extensively de-mine areas to allow advances. Ukrainian officials reported shortages of men and equipment as Ukrainian soldiers unearthed five mines for every square metre in certain places.[298]

School lessons of pupils in Kharkiv city, conducted in the metro due to the danger of Russian shelling
Following Russia pulling out of the Black Sea Grain Initiative, the conflict on the Black Sea escalated with Ukraine targeting Russian ships. On 4 August, Ukrainian security service sources reported that the Russian landing ship Olenegorsky Gornyak had been hit and damaged by an unmanned naval drone. Video footage released by Ukraine's security services appeared to show the drone striking the ship, with another video showing the ship seemingly listing to one side.[299] On 12 September, both Ukrainian and Russian sources reported that Russian naval targets in Sevastopol had been struck by unconfirmed weaponry, damaging two military vessels, one of them reportedly a submarine.[300] Ukraine also reported that several oil and gas drilling platforms on the Black Sea held by Russia since 2015 had been retaken.[301]

Ukrainian soldiers in recaptured Klishchiivka on 17 September 2023
In September 2023, Ukrainian intelligence estimated that Russia had deployed over 420,000 troops in Ukraine.[302]

On 21 September, Russia began missile strikes across Ukraine, damaging the country's energy facilities.[303] On 22 September, the US announced it would send long-range ATACMS missiles to Ukraine,[304] despite the reservations of some government officials.[305] The same day, the Ukrainian Main Directorate of Intelligence launched a missile strike on the Black Sea Fleet headquarters in Sevastopol, Crimea, killing several senior military officials.[306][307]

In October 2023, it was reported that there was a growth of mutinies among Russian troops due to large amount of losses in Russian offensives around Avdiivka with a lack of artillery, food, water and poor command also being reported.[308] By November, British intelligence said that recent weeks had "likely seen some of the highest Russian casualty rates of the war so far."[309]

In mid-to-late October 2023, Ukrainian marines—partly guided by defecting Russian troops—crossed the Dnipro River (the strategic barrier between eastern and western Ukraine), downstream of the destroyed Kakhovka Dam, to attack the Russian-held territory on the east side of the river. Despite heavy losses due to intense Russian shelling and aerial bombardment, disorganisation, and dwindling resources, Ukrainian brigades invading the Russian-held side of the river continued to inflict heavy casualties on Russian forces well into late December.[310][311]

On 1 December 2023, Volodymyr Zelenskyy stated that the Ukrainian counter-offensive was not successful, citing slower than expected results.[312] Zelenskyy also stated that it will be easier for Ukraine to regain the Crimean peninsula than the Donbas region in the east of the country, because the Donbas is heavily militarised and there are frequent pro-Russian sentiments.[313] In December 2023, multiple international media outlets described the Ukrainian counteroffensive as having failed to regain any significant amount of territory or meet any of its strategic objectives.[312][314][315]

Battle of Avdiivka and offensive in Kharkiv oblast (1 December 2023 – present)
Main article: Battle of Avdiivka (2023–2024)
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (1 December 2023 – 31 March 2024) and Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (1 April 2024 – present).

Street in Kherson after bomb strike on the city centre on 2 February 2024
On 17 February 2024, Russia captured Avdiivka, a longtime stronghold for Ukraine that had been described as a "gateway" to nearby Donetsk.[316][317][318] ABC News stated that Russia could use the development to boost morale with the war largely at a stalemate close to its second anniversary.[319] Described by Forbes journalist David Axe as a pyrrhic Russian victory, the Russian 2nd and 41st Combined Arms Armies ended up with 16,000 men killed, tens of thousands wounded and around 700 vehicles lost before seizing the ruins of Avdiivka.[320] Andrey Morozov, a prominent pro-war Russian blogger, reportedly died by suicide following a post revealing the large number of Russian casualties during the battle.[321]

Ukraine's shortage of ammunition caused by political deadlock in the U.S. Congress and a lack of production capacity in Europe contributed to the Ukrainian withdrawal from Avdiivka, and was "being felt across the front" according to Time. The shortage resulted in Ukraine having to ration its units to fire only 2,000 rounds per day, compared to an estimated 10,000 rounds fired daily by Russia.[322]

On 29 February, the Ukrainian Air Force reported a spree of shooting down 11 Russian jets in 11 days: eight Sukhoi Su-34s, two Su-35 fighters and a rare Beriev A-50 radar plane.[323][324]

On 10 May 2024, Russia began a renewed offensive in Kharkiv Oblast. Russia managed to capture a dozen villages, and Ukraine had evacuated more than 11,000 people from the region since the start of the offensive by 25 May. Ukraine said on 17 May that its forces had slowed the Russian advance, and by 25 May Zelenskyy said that Ukrainian forces had secured "combat control" of areas where Russian troops entered the northeastern Kharkiv region. Russian officials meanwhile said that they were "advancing in every direction" and that the goal was to create a "buffer zone" for embattled border regions.[325][326] The White House said on 7 June that the offensive had stalled and was unlikely to advance further, national security spokesperson John Kirby said the arrival of US weapons helped change trajectory of the battle. Kirby said the Russians stalled upon reaching the first line of Ukrainian defences, but also added that Ukraine was still under pressure.[327]

Battlespaces
Further information: Northern Ukraine campaign, Eastern Ukraine campaign, and Southern Ukraine campaign
Command
Further information: Order of battle for the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Russian president Vladimir Putin meeting with Russian defence minister Sergei Shoigu in April 2022, after Russia's defeat at the Battle of Kyiv

Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy with Ukrainian servicemen defending the city of Bakhmut in December 2022
The supreme commanders-in-chief are the heads of state of the respective governments: President Vladimir Putin of Russia and President Volodymyr Zelenskyy of Ukraine. Putin has reportedly meddled in operational decisions, bypassing senior commanders and giving orders directly to brigade commanders.[328]

US general Mark Milley said that Ukraine's top military commander in the war, commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, General Valerii Zaluzhnyi, "has emerged as the military mind his country needed. His leadership enabled the Ukrainian armed forces to adapt quickly with battlefield initiative against the Russians."[329] Russia began the invasion with no overall commander. The commanders of the four military districts were each responsible for their own offensives.[330]

After initial setbacks, the commander of the Russian Southern Military District, Aleksandr Dvornikov, was placed in overall command on 8 April 2022,[331] while still responsible for his own campaign. Russian forces benefited from the centralisation of command under Dvornikov,[332] but continued failures to meet expectations in Moscow led to multiple changes in overall command:[333]

commander of the Eastern Military District Gennady Zhidko (Eastern Military District, 26  – 8 October 2022)
commander of the southern grouping of forces Sergei Surovikin (early October 2022 – 11 January 2023)
commander-in-chief of the Russian Armed Forces Valerii Gerasimov (from 11 January 2023)
Russia has suffered a remarkably large number of casualties in the ranks of its officers, including 12 generals.[334]

Missile attacks and aerial warfare
Main article: Aerial warfare in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
See also: List of aircraft losses during the Russo-Ukrainian War

A street in Kyiv following Russian missile strikes on 10 October 2022
Aerial warfare began the first day of the invasion. Dozens of missile attacks were recorded across both eastern and western Ukraine,[83][84] reaching as far west as Lviv.[85]

By September, the Ukrainian air force had shot down about 55 Russian warplanes.[335] In mid-October, Russian forces launched missile strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure, intended to knock out energy facilities.[336] By late November, hundreds of civilians had been killed or wounded in the attacks,[337] and rolling blackouts had left millions without power.[338]

In December, drones launched from Ukraine allegedly carried out several attacks on Dyagilevo and Engels air bases in western Russia, killing 10 and heavily damaging two Tu-95 aircraft.[339]

Crimea attacks
Main article: Crimea attacks (2022–present)

Ukrainian regions annexed by Russia since 2014 (Autonomous Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol) and 2022 (others). The 2022 annexation created a strategic land bridge between Crimea and Russia.
On 31 July 2022, Russian Navy Day commemorations were cancelled after a drone attack reportedly wounded several people at the Russian Black Sea Fleet headquarters in Sevastopol.[340] On 9 August 2022, large explosions were reported at Saky Air Base in western Crimea. Satellite imagery showed at least eight aircraft damaged or destroyed. Initial speculation attributed the explosions to long-range missiles, sabotage by special forces or an accident;[341] Ukrainian general Valerii Zaluzhnyi claimed responsibility on 7 September.[342]

The base is near Novofedorivka, a destination popular with tourists. Traffic backed up at the Crimean Bridge after the explosions with queues of civilians trying to leave the area.[343] A week later Russia blamed "sabotage" for explosions and a fire at an arms depot near Dzhankoi in northeastern Crimea that also damaged a railway line and power station. Russian regional head Sergei Aksyonov said that 2,000 people were evacuated from the area.[344] On 18 August, explosions were reported at Belbek Air Base north of Sevastopol.[345] On the morning of 8 October 2022, the Kerch Bridge linking occupied Crimea to Russia, partially collapsed due to an explosion.[346] On 17 July 2023, there was another large explosion on the bridge.[347]

Russian attacks against Ukrainian civilian infrastructure
Main articles: Russian strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure (2022–present) and Attacks on civilians in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Russia has carried out waves of strikes on Ukrainian electrical and water systems.[348] On 15 November 2022, Russia fired 85 missiles at the Ukrainian power grid, causing major power outages in Kyiv and neighboring regions.[349] On 31 December, Putin in his New Year address called the war against Ukraine a "sacred duty to our ancestors and descendants" as missiles and drones rained down on Kiev.[350]

On 10 March 2023, The New York Times reported that Russia had used new hypersonic missiles in a massive missile attack on Ukraine. Such missiles are more effective in evading conventional Ukrainian anti-missile defences that had previously proved useful against Russia's conventional, non-hypersonic missile systems.[351]

Naval blockade and engagements
Main article: Naval warfare in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
See also: List of ship losses during the Russo-Ukrainian War

Commemorative stamp about the phrase Russian warship, go fuck yourself!

The Russian Black Sea flagship Moskva was sunk on 14 April 2022, reportedly after being hit by two Ukrainian Neptune anti-ship missiles.
Ukraine lies on the Black Sea, which has ocean access only through the Turkish-held Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits. On 28 February, Turkey invoked the 1936 Montreux Convention and sealed off the straits to Russian warships that were not registered to Black Sea home bases and returning to their ports of origin. It specifically denied passage through the Turkish Straits to four Russian naval vessels.[352] On 24 February, the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine announced that Russian Navy ships had begun an attack on Snake Island.[353] The guided missile cruiser Moskva and patrol boat Vasily Bykov bombarded the island with deck guns.[354] The Russian warship identified itself and instructed the Ukrainians on the island to surrender. Their response was "Russian warship, go fuck yourself!"[355] After the bombardment, a detachment of Russian soldiers landed and took control of Snake Island.[356] Russia said on 26 February that US drones had supplied intelligence to the Ukrainian navy to help it target Russian warships in the Black Sea. The US denied this.[357]

By 3 March, Ukrainian forces in Mykolaiv scuttled the frigate Hetman Sahaidachny, the flagship of the Ukrainian navy, to prevent its capture by Russian forces.[358] On 14 March, the Russian source RT reported that the Russian Armed Forces had captured about a dozen Ukrainian ships in Berdiansk, including the Polnocny-class landing ship Yuri Olefirenko.[359] On 24 March, Ukrainian officials said that a Russian landing ship docked in Berdiansk—initially reported to be the Orsk and then its sister ship, the Saratov—was destroyed by a Ukrainian rocket attack.[140][360] In March 2022, the UN International Maritime Organization (IMO) sought to create a safe sea corridor for commercial vessels to leave Ukrainian ports.[361] On 27 March, Russia established a sea corridor 80 miles (130 km) long and 3 miles (4.8 km) wide through its Maritime Exclusion Zone, for the transit of merchant vessels from the edge of Ukrainian territorial waters southeast of Odesa.[362][363] Ukraine closed its ports at MARSEC level 3, with sea mines laid in port approaches, pending the end of hostilities.[364][failed verification]

The Russian cruiser Moskva, the flagship of the Black Sea Fleet, was, according to Ukrainian sources and a US senior official,[365] hit on 13 April by two Ukrainian Neptune anti-ship cruise missiles, setting the ship afire. The Russian Defence Ministry said the warship had suffered serious damage from a munition explosion caused by a fire, and that its entire crew had been evacuated.[366] Pentagon spokesman John Kirby reported on 14 April that satellite images showed that the Russian warship had suffered a sizeable explosion onboard but was heading to the east for expected repairs and refitting in Sevastopol.[367] Later the same day, the Russian Ministry of Defence stated that the Moskva had sunk while under tow in rough weather.[368] On 15 April, Reuters reported that Russia launched an apparent retaliatory missile strike against the missile factory Luch Design Bureau in Kyiv where the Neptune missiles used in the Moskva attack were manufactured and designed.[369] On 5 May, a US official confirmed that the US gave "a range of intelligence" (including real-time battlefield targeting intelligence)[370] to assist in the sinking of the Moskva.[371]

On 1 June, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov asserted that Ukraine's policy of mining its own harbours to impede Russian maritime aggression had contributed to the food export crisis, saying: "If Kyiv solves the problem of demining ports, the Russian Navy will ensure the unimpeded passage of ships with grain to the Mediterranean Sea."[372] On 30 June 2022, Russia announced that it had withdrawn its troops from the island in a "gesture of goodwill."[224] The withdrawal was later confirmed by Ukraine.[373]

On 26 December 2023, Ukraine's air force attacked the Russian landing ship Novocherkassk docked in Feodosia. Ukraine said it was destroyed—unlikely to sail again. Russian authorities confirmed the attack, but not the loss, and said two attacking aircraft were destroyed. Independent analysts said the ship's loss could hamper future Russian attacks on Ukraine's coast.[374][375][376] On 31 January 2024, Ukrainian sea drones struck the Russian Tarantul-class corvette Ivanovets in the Black Sea, causing the ship to sink.[377][378] Two weeks later on 14 February, the same type of Ukrainian sea drones struck and sank the Russian landing ship Tsezar Kunikov.[379][380]

Nuclear risk
Main article: Nuclear risk during the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Four days into the invasion, President Putin placed Russia's nuclear forces on high alert, raising fears that Russia could use tactical nuclear weapons against Ukraine, or a wider escalation of the conflict could occur.[381] Putin alluded in April to the use of nuclear weapons, and Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov said there was a "real" danger of a World War III.[382] On 14 April 2022, CIA director William Burns said that "potential desperation" in the face of defeat could encourage President Putin to use tactical nuclear weapons.[383] In response to Russia's disregard of safety precautions during its occupation of the disabled former nuclear power plant at Chernobyl and its firing of missiles in the vicinity of the active Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, Zelenskyy called on 26 April for an international discussion on Russia's use of nuclear resources, saying: "no one in the world can feel safe knowing how many nuclear facilities, nuclear weapons and related technologies the Russian state has ... If Russia has forgotten what Chernobyl is, it means that global control over Russia's nuclear facilities, and nuclear technology is needed."[384]

In August 2022, shelling around Zaporizhzhia power plant became a crisis, prompting an emergency inspection by the IAEA. Ukraine described the crisis nuclear terrorism by Russia.[385] On 19 September, President Biden warned of a "consequential response from the U.S." if Russia were to resort to using nuclear weapons in the conflict.[386] Before the United Nations on 21 September Biden criticised Putin's nuclear sabre-rattling, calling Putin was "overt, reckless and irresponsible... A nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought."[387] In March 2023, Putin announced plans to install Russian tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus.[388]

Ukrainian resistance
Main article: Ukrainian resistance during the Russian invasion of Ukraine
See also: 2022 protests in Russian-occupied Ukraine

Civilians in Kyiv preparing Molotov cocktails, 26 February 2022
Ukrainian civilians resisted the Russian invasion by volunteering for territorial defence units, making Molotov cocktails, donating food, building barriers like Czech hedgehogs,[389] and helping to transport refugees.[390] Responding to a call from Ukravtodor, Ukraine's transportation agency, civilians dismantled or altered road signs,[391] constructed makeshift barriers, and blocked roadways.[392] Social media reports showed spontaneous street protests against Russian forces in occupied settlements, often evolving into verbal altercations and physical standoffs with Russian troops.[393] By the beginning of April, Ukrainian civilians began to organise as guerrillas, mostly in the wooded north and east of the country. The Ukrainian military announced plans for a large-scale guerrilla campaign to complement its conventional defence.[394]

People physically blocked Russian military vehicles, sometimes forcing them to retreat.[393][395] The Russian soldiers' response to unarmed civilian resistance varied from reluctance to engage the protesters,[393] to firing into the air, to firing directly into crowds.[396] There have been mass detentions of Ukrainian protesters, and Ukrainian media has reported forced disappearances, mock executions, hostage-taking, extrajudicial killings, and sexual violence perpetrated by the Russian military.[397] To facilitate Ukrainian attacks, civilians reported Russian military positions via a Telegram chatbot and Diia, a Ukrainian government app previously used by citizens to upload official identity and medical documents. In response, Russian forces began destroying mobile phone network equipment, searching door-to-door for smartphones and computers, and in at least one case killed a civilian who had pictures of Russian tanks.[398]

As of 21 May 2022, Zelenskyy indicated that Ukraine had 700,000 service members on active duty fighting the Russian invasion.[399] Ukraine withdrew soldiers and military equipment back to Ukraine over the course of 2022 that had been deployed to United Nations peacekeeping missions like MONUSCO in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[400]

International aspects
Reactions
Main article: Reactions to the Russian invasion of Ukraine
See also: Protests against the Russian invasion of Ukraine

UN General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1 vote on 2 March 2022 condemning the invasion of Ukraine and demanding a complete withdrawal of Russian troops
  In favour
  Against
  Abstained
  Absent
  Non-member
The invasion received widespread international condemnation from governments and intergovernmental organisations.[401] On 2 March 2022 and on 23 February 2023, 141 member states of the UN General Assembly voted for a resolution saying that Russia should immediately withdraw. Seven, including Russia, voted against the measure.[402] Political reactions to the invasion included new sanctions imposed on Russia, which triggered widespread economic effects on the Russian and world economies.[403] Sanctions forced Russia to reorient its oil exports to non-sanctioning countries such as India, rely more on LNG (which was not subject to European Union sanctions), and shift its coal exports from Europe to Asia.[404] Most European countries cancelled nuclear cooperation with Russia.[405]

Over seventy sovereign states and the European Union delivered humanitarian aid to Ukraine, and nearly fifty countries plus the EU provided military aid.[406] Economic sanctions included a ban on Russian aircraft using EU airspace,[407] a ban of certain Russian banks from the SWIFT international payments system, and a ban on certain Russian media outlets.[408] Reactions to the invasion have included public response, media responses, peace efforts, and the examination of the legal implications of the invasion.

The invasion received widespread international public condemnation. Some countries, particularly in the Global South, saw public sympathy or outright support for Russia, due in part to distrust of US foreign policy.[409] Protests and demonstrations were held worldwide, including some in Russia and parts of Ukraine occupied by Russia.[410] Calls for a boycott of Russian goods spread on social media platforms,[411] while hackers attacked Russian websites, particularly those operated by the Russian government.[412] Anti-Russian sentiment against Russians living abroad surged after the invasion.[413] In March 2022, Russian President Putin introduced prison sentences of up to 15 years for publishing "fake news" about Russian military operations,[414] intended to suppress any criticism related to the war.[415]

According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2023, 31 percent of the world's population live in countries that are leaning towards or supportive of Russia, 30.7 percent live in neutral countries, and 36.2 percent live in countries that are against Russia in some way.[416]

By October 2022, three countries—Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia—had declared Russia a "terrorist state."[417] On 1 August, Iceland became the first European country to close its embassy in Russia as a result of the invasion of Ukraine.[418]

The invasion prompted Ukraine,[419] Finland and Sweden to officially apply for NATO membership.[420] Finland became a member of NATO on 4 April 2023,[421] followed by Sweden on 7 March 2024.[422]

A documentary film produced during the siege of Mariupol, 20 Days in Mariupol, won the Oscar for best documentary in 2024.[423]

Foreign involvement
Main article: Foreign involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Further information: International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, List of military aid to Ukraine during the Russo-Ukrainian War, and International Legion (Ukraine)
See also: United Nations Security Council Resolution 2623

  Countries sending lethal military equipment to Ukraine
  Countries sending non-lethal military aid to Ukraine
  Russia
  Ukraine
Foreign involvement in the invasion has been worldwide and extensive, with support ranging from military sales and aid, sanctions, and condemnation.[424] Western and other countries imposed limited sanctions on Russia in the prelude to the invasion and applied new sanctions when the invasion began, intending to cripple the Russian economy;[425] sanctions targeted individuals, banks, businesses, monetary exchanges, exports, and imports.[424] From January 2022 to January 2024, $380 billion in aid to Ukraine was tracked by the Kiel Institute, including nearly $118 billion in direct military aid.[426] NATO is coordinating and helping its member states provide military equipment and financial aid to the country.[427]

The United States has provided the most military assistance to Ukraine,[428] having committed over $46 billion from the start of the invasion to January 2024,[426][e] though adopting a policy against sending troops.[431] NATO members such as Germany reversed policied against providing offensive military aid to support Ukraine, and the European Union supplied lethal arms for the first time in its history, providing over €3 billion to Ukraine.[432] Bulgaria has supplied more than €2 billion worth of arms and ammunition to Ukraine, including over one third of the ammunition needed in the early phase of the invasion and a plurality of needed fuel.[433] In September 2023, Poland said it would cease sending arms to Ukraine after a dispute between the two countries over grain.[434]

Belarus has allowed Russia to use its territory to stage part of the invasion, and to launch Russian missiles into Ukraine.[435] Politico reported in March 2023 that Chinese state-owned weapons manufacturer Norinco shipped assault rifles, drone parts, and body armor to Russia between June and December 2022, with some shipments via third countries including Turkey and the United Arab Emirates.[436] According to the United States, Chinese ammunition has been used on battlefields in Ukraine.[437] In May 2023, the European Union identified that Chinese and UAE firms were supplying weapon components to Russia.[438] In June 2023, US military intel suggested Iran was providing both Shahed combat drones and production materials to develop a drone manufactory to Russia.[439] According to the US, North Korea has supplied Russia with ballistic missiles and launchers although US authorities did not mention the specific models. Based on debris left by missiles on 30 December 2023 attacks against Ukrainian targets show parts common to KN-23, KN-24 and KN-25 missiles.[440][441] In February 2024, a Reuters report indicated that Iran sent ballistic missiles to the Russian military.[442] In April 2024, China was reported to have supplied Russia with geospatial intelligence, machine tools for tanks, and propellants for missiles.[443]

Casualties
Further information: Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War § Russian invasion of Ukraine, and List of deaths during the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Photos of Ukrainian soldiers killed in the Russo-Ukrainian War

Russian casualties next to a Z marked armored vehicle
Russian and Ukrainian sources have both been said to inflate the casualty numbers for opposing forces and downplay their own losses for the sake of morale.[444] Leaked US documents say that "under-reporting of casualties within the [Russian] system highlights the military's 'continuing reluctance' to convey bad news up the chain of command."[445] Russian news outlets have largely stopped reporting the Russian death toll.[446] Russia and Ukraine have admitted suffering "significant"[447] and "considerable" losses, respectively.[448][449] BBC News has reported that Ukrainian reports of Russian casualty figures included the injured.[450][451][452]

The numbers of civilian and military deaths have been as always impossible to determine precisely.[453] Agence France-Presse (AFP) reported that neither it nor independent conflict monitors were able to verify Russian and Ukrainian claims of enemy losses and suspected that they were inflated.[454] On 12 October 2022, the independent Russian media project iStories, citing sources close to the Kremlin, reported that more than 90,000 Russian soldiers had been killed, seriously wounded, or gone missing in Ukraine.[455]

While combat deaths can be inferred from a variety of sources including satellite imagery of military action, civilian deaths can be more difficult. On 16 June 2022, the Ukrainian Minister of Defence told CNN that he believed that tens of thousands of Ukrainians had died, adding that he hoped that the total death toll was below 100,000.[456] In the destroyed city of Mariupol alone, Ukrainian officials believe that at least 25,000 have been killed,[457][458] and bodies were still being discovered in September 2022.[459] The mayor said over 10,000 and possibly as many as 20,000 civilians died in the siege of Mariupol and that Russian forces had brought mobile cremation equipment with them when they entered the city.[460][461] Researcher Dan Ciuriak from C. D. Howe Institute in August 2022 estimates the number of killed Mariupol civilians at 25,000,[462] and an investigation by AP from the end of 2022 gives a number of up to 75,000 killed civilians in Mariupol area alone.[463][464] AFP says that "a key gap in casualty counts is the lack of information from Russian-occupied places like the port city of Mariupol, where tens of thousands of civilians are believed to have died".[465] According to a recent study by Human Rights Watch and two other organizations, there were at least 8,034 excess deaths in Mariupol between March 2022 and February 2023.[466] The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reports similar issues and believed that the true civilian casualty numbers were significantly higher than it has been able to confirm.[467]

In the Russian military during the invasion, Russia's ethnic minorities have been suffering disproportionately high casualties. In October 2022, the Russian regions with the highest death tolls were Dagestan, Tuva and Buryatia, all minority regions. In February 2024, six out of ten Russian regions with the highest mortality rates in Ukraine were located in Siberia and the far east, and ethnic minorities continuing outsized casualty rates prompted analysts to warn that the situation will lead to long-term destructive impacts on these communities.[468][469][470][471][472]

Confirmed casualties
Numbers    Time period    Source
Ukrainian civilians    10,582+ killed, 19,875+ wounded    24 February 2022 – 15 February 2024    United Nations (OHCHR)[473]
Ukrainian forces (NGU)    501 killed, 1,697 wounded    24 February 2022 – 12 May 2022    National Guard of Ukraine[474]
Ukrainian forces (ZSU)    31,000 killed    24 February 2022 – 25 February 2024    Office of the President of Ukraine[475]
Ukrainian forces    46,450 killed (incl. non-combat,[476]
conf. by names)    24 February 2022 – 29 April 2024    UALosses project[477]
Russian forces
(DPR/LPR excluded)    56,858 killed (conf. by names)    24 February 2022 – 21 June 2024    BBC News Russian and Mediazona[478]
Russian forces
(Donetsk & Luhansk PR)    23,400 killed    24 February 2022 – 20 February 2024    BBC News Russian[478]
Estimated and claimed casualties
Numbers    Time period    Source
Ukrainian civilians    11,000 killed (confirmed),[f] 28,000 captive    24 February 2022 – 30 November 2023    Ukrainian government[479][480][481]
1,499 killed, 4,287 wounded
(in DPR/LPR areas)    17 February 2022 – 22 June 2023    DPR[g] and LPR[485][486]
13,287 killed, 19,464 injured    24 February 2022 – 23 February 2023    Benjamin J. Radford et al.[487]
Ukrainian forces    70,000 killed,
100,000–120,000 wounded    24 February 2022 – 18 August 2023    United States estimate[488]
Russian forces    315,000 casualties    24 February 2022 – 30 January 2024    United States (CIA) estimate[489]
123,400 killed, 214,000 wounded    24 February 2022 – 5 April 2024    BBC News Russian[478][490]
534,360+ casualties    24 February 2022 – 23 June 2024    Ukrainian MoD estimate[491]
Prisoners of war
See also: Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian War § Prisoners of war, and Treatment of prisoners of war in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Official and estimated numbers of prisoners of war (POW) have varied.[492] On 24 February Oksana Markarova, Ukraine's ambassador to the US, said that a platoon of 74th Guards from Kemerovo Oblast had surrendered, saying they were unaware that they had been brought to Ukraine and tasked with killing Ukrainians.[493] Russia claimed to have captured 572 Ukrainian soldiers by 2 March 2022,[494] while Ukraine said it held 562 Russian soldiers as of 20 March.[495] It also released one soldier for five of its own and exchanged another nine for the detained mayor of Melitopol.[496]

Ukrainian soldiers released during the exchange between Ukraine and Russia on 6 May 2023
On 24 March 2022, 10 Russian and 10 Ukrainian soldiers, as well as 11 Russians and 19 Ukrainian civilian sailors, were exchanged.[497] On 1 April 86 Ukrainian servicemen were exchanged[498] for an unknown number of Russian troops.[499] The Independent on 9 June 2022 cited an intelligence estimate of more than 5,600 Ukrainian soldiers captured, while the Russian servicemen held prisoner fell from 900 in April to 550 after several prisoner exchanges.

An 25 August 2022 report by the Humanitarian Research Lab of the Yale School of Public Health identified some 21 filtration camps for Ukrainian "civilians, POWs, and other personnel" in the vicinity of Donetsk oblast. Imaging of one of these, Olenivka prison, found two sites with disturbed earth consistent with "potential graves."[500] Kaveh Khoshnood, a professor at the Yale School of Public Health, said: "Incommunicado detention of civilians is more than a violation of international humanitarian law—it represents a threat to the public health of those currently in the custody of Russia and its proxies." Conditions described by freed prisoners include exposure, insufficient access to sanitation, food and water, cramped conditions, electrical shocks and physical assault.[500]

In late 2022, as Russian casualties exceeded 50,000, the Russian army introduced barrier troops. The U.K. defence ministry stated that these are units that threaten to shoot their own retreating soldiers in order to compel offensives. In March 2023, Russian soldiers filmed a video addressed to President Putin where they stated that after suffering casualties, they attempted to return to their headquarters but were denied evacuation by their superiors. They stated that barrier troops were placed behind them threatening to ″destroy them″.[501] In particular, Storm-Z units have been reported to be ″kept in line″ by barrier troops.[502]

In March 2023, UN human rights commissioner Volker Türk reported that more than 90% of the Ukrainian POWs interviewed by his office, which could only include those who were released from Russia, said in Russia "they were tortured or ill-treated, notably in penitentiary facilities, including through so-called – it is an awful phrase – 'welcoming beatings' on their arrival, as well as frequent acts of torture throughout detention."[503]

In April 2023, several videos started circulating on different websites purportedly showing Russian soldiers beheading Ukrainian soldiers.[504] Zelenskyy compared Russian soldiers to "beasts" after the footage was circulated.[505] Russian officials opened an investigation of the footage shortly thereafter.[506]

War crimes and attacks on civilians
Main articles: War crimes in the Russian invasion of Ukraine and Attacks on civilians in the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Dead bodies 8 April 2022 after the Kramatorsk railway bombing. Ukrainian investigators identified more than 600 suspected war crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, some notably involving Russian defence minister Sergei Shoigu.[507]
During the invasion, the Russian military and authorities have been responsible for deliberate attacks against civilian targets[508] (including strikes on hospitals and on the energy grid), massacres of civilians, abduction and torture of civilians, sexual violence,[509] forced deportation of civilians, and torture and murder of Ukrainian prisoners of war. They have also carried out many indiscriminate attacks in densely-populated areas, including with cluster bombs.[510][511][512]

According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), by December 2023, about 78% of confirmed civilian casualties had been killed in Ukrainian-controlled territory, while 21% had been killed in Russian-occupied territory.[513]

Russian forces have reportedly used banned chemical weapons at least 465 times during the war, usually as tear gas grenades.[514] The use of tear gas is banned by international Chemical Weapons Convention and considered a chemical weapon if applied by military forces during warfare.[515] On 6 April 2024, a The Daily Telegraph investigation concluded that ″Russian troops are carrying out a systematic campaign of illegal chemical attacks against Ukrainian soldiers″.[516]

In March 2024, the United Nations issued a report saying Russia may have executed more than 30 recently captured Ukrainian prisoners of war over the winter months. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights verified three incidents in which Russian servicemen executed seven Ukrainian servicemen. According to the same report, 39 of 60 released Ukrainian prisoners of war also "disclosed that they had been subjected to sexual violence during their internment, including attempted rape, threats of rape and castration, beatings or the administration of electric shocks to genitals, and repeated forced nudity, including during interrogations and to check for tattoos."[517]

Abduction of Ukrainian children
Main article: Child abductions in the Russo-Ukrainian War
In June 2024, an investigation by the Financial Times identified four Ukrainian children on a Russian government-linked adoption website that had been abducted from state care homes. There was no mention of the Ukrainian background of the children, and one of the children was shown with a new Russian name and age that differed from their Ukrainian documents, another child was shown using a Russian version of their Ukrainian name. 17 additional matches identified by the Financial Times on the adoption website were also confirmed as Ukrainian children in a recent New York Times investigation. Ukrainian authorities estimate that nearly 20,000 Ukrainian children have been forcibly taken from occupied territories to Russia since the beginning of the full-scale invasion. Wayne Jordash, president of Global Rights Compliance, an international humanitarian law firm, described forcibly transferring or deporting children as war crimes, adding that when done as part of a widespread or systematic attack on a civilian population, Russia is also committing crimes against humanity.[518][519]

International arrest warrants
Further information: International Criminal Court arrest warrants for Vladimir Putin and Maria Lvova-Belova
The International Criminal Court (ICC) opened an investigation into possible crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes.[520] On 17 March 2023 the ICC issued a warrant for Putin's arrest, charging him with individual criminal responsibility in the abduction of children forcibly deported to Russia.[521] It was the first time that the ICC had issued an arrest warrant for the head of state of a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council[521] (the world's five principal nuclear powers).[522] Moscow has denied any involvement in war crimes, a response Vittorio Bufacchi of University College Cork says "has bordered on the farcical,"[523] and its contention that the images coming out of Bucha were fabricated "a disingenuous response born by delusional hubris, post-truth on overdrive, (that) does not merit to be taken seriously." Even the usually fractured United States Senate came together to call Putin a war criminal.[524] One of several efforts to document Russian war crimes concerns its repeated bombardment of markets and bread lines, destruction of basic infrastructure and attacks on exports and supply convoys, in a country where deliberate starvation of Ukrainians by Soviets the Holodomor still looms large in public memory.[525] Forcible deportation of populations, such as took place in Mariupol, is another area of focus, since "forced deportations and transfers are defined both as war crimes under the Fourth Geneva Convention and Protocol II and Article 8 of the Rome Statute—and as crimes against humanity—under Article 7 of the Rome Statute. As both war crimes and crimes against humanity, they have several mechanisms for individual accountability, the International Criminal Court and also, at the individual state level, universal jurisdiction and Magnitsky sanctions legislation.[526]

Impacts
Humanitarian impact
Main article: Humanitarian impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Further information: World food crises (2022–present)
The humanitarian impact of the invasion has been extensive and has included negative impacts on international food supplies and the 2022 food crises.[527] An estimated 6.6 million Ukrainians were internally displaced by August 2022, and about the same number were refugees in other countries.[528] The invasion has devastated the cultural heritage of Ukraine,[529] with over 500 Ukrainian cultural heritage sites, including cultural centres, theatres, museums, and churches, affected by "Russian aggression." Ukraine's Minister of Culture called it cultural genocide.[530] Deliberate destruction and looting of Ukrainian cultural heritage sites in this way is considered a war crime.[531]

The Russian attacks on civilians, causing mass civilian casualties and displacement, have been characterised as genocide and democide.[15] On 15 September 2023, a U.N.-mandated investigative body presented their findings that Russian occupiers had tortured Ukrainians so brutally that some of their victims died, and forced families to listen as they raped women next door.[532] The commission has previously said that violations committed by Russian forces in Ukraine, including the use of torture, may constitute crimes against humanity.[533]

A report by Physicians for Human Rights described Russian violence against the Ukrainian health care system as being a prominent feature of Russia's conduct during the war, documenting 707 attacks on Ukraine's health care system between 24 February and 31 December 2022. Such attacks are considered war crimes.[534]

Refugee crisis
Main article: 2022–present Ukrainian refugee crisis

Ukrainian refugees in Kraków protesting against the war, 6 March 2022

Protest against the Russian invasion of Ukraine, organised by political youth organisations in Helsinki, Finland, 26 February 2022
The war caused the largest refugee and humanitarian crisis in Europe since the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s;[535][536] the UN described it as the fastest growing such crisis since World War II.[537] As Russia built up military forces along the Ukrainian border, many neighbouring governments and aid organisations prepared for a mass displacement event in the weeks before the invasion. In December 2021, the Ukrainian defence minister estimated that an invasion could force three to five million people to flee their homes.[538]

In the first week of the invasion, the UN reported over a million refugees had fled Ukraine; this subsequently reached over eight million by 31 January 2023.[539][540] On 20 May, NPR reported that, following a significant influx of foreign military equipment into Ukraine, a significant number of refugees are seeking to return to regions of Ukraine which are relatively isolated from the invasion front in southeastern Ukraine.[541] However, by 3 May, another 8 million people were displaced inside Ukraine.[542]

Most refugees were women, children, elderly, or disabled.[543] Most male Ukrainian nationals aged 18 to 60 were denied exit from Ukraine as part of mandatory conscription,[544] unless they were responsible for the financial support of three or more children, single fathers, or were the parent/guardian of children with disabilities.[545] Many Ukrainian men, including teenagers, opted to remain in Ukraine voluntarily to join the resistance.[546]

According to the UN High Commission for Refugees as of 13 May 2022, there were 3,315,711 refugees in Poland, 901,696 in Romania, 594,664 in Hungary, 461,742 in Moldova, 415,402 in Slovakia, and 27,308 in Belarus, while Russia reported it had received over 800,104 refugees.[547] By 13 July 2022, over 390,000 Ukrainian refugees had arrived in the Czech Republic, where the average refugee was a woman accompanied by one child. These refugees were twice as likely to have a college degree as the Czech population as a whole.[548] Turkey has been another significant destination, registering more than 58,000 Ukrainian refugees as of 22 March, and more than 58,000 as of 25 April.[549] The EU invoked the Temporary Protection Directive for the first time in its history, granting Ukrainian refugees the right to live and work in the EU for up to three years.[550] Britain has accepted 146,379 refugees, as well as extending the ability to remain in the UK for 3 years with broadly similar entitlements as the EU, three years residency and access to state welfare and services.[551]

According to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), Russia has engaged in "massive deportation" of over 1.3 million Ukrainian civilians, potentially constituting crimes against humanity.[552] The OSCE and Ukraine have accused Russia of forcibly moving civilians to filtration camps in Russian-held territory, and then into Russia. Ukrainian sources have compared this policy to Soviet-era population transfers and Russian actions in the Chechen War of Independence.[553] For instance, as of 8 April, Russia claimed to have evacuated about 121,000 Mariupol residents to Russia.[553] Also, on 19 October, Russia announced the forced deportation of 60,000 civilians from areas around the line of contact in Kherson oblast.[554] RIA Novosti and Ukrainian officials said that thousands were dispatched to various centres in cities in Russia and Russian-occupied Ukraine,[555] from which people were sent to economically depressed regions of Russia.[556] In April, Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council secretary Oleksiy Danilov said that Russia planned to build "concentration camps" for Ukrainians in western Siberia, and likely planned to force prisoners to build new cities in Siberia.[557][h]

Long-term demographic effects

Ukrainian refugees entering Romania, 5 March 2022
Both Russia and Ukraine faced the prospect of significant population decline even before the war, having among the lowest fertility rates worldwide and considerable emigration. It is the first time that two countries with an average age above 40 have gone to war against each other.[559] Russia had a fighting-age (18- to 40-year-old) male population more than four times higher than Ukraine's and slightly higher birth rates, while the willingness to fight was more pronounced in Ukraine.[560]

Several sources have pointed out that the war is considerably worsening Ukraine's demographic crisis, making significant shrinking very likely.[561] A July 2023 study by the Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies stated that "regardless of how long the war lasts and whether or not there is further military escalation, Ukraine is unlikely to recover demographically from the consequences of the war. Even in 2040 it will have only about 35 million inhabitants, around 20% fewer than before the war (2021: 42.8 million) and the decline in the working-age population is likely to be the most severe and far-reaching." The study took different scenarios, from a "best case" (end of the war in 2023 without much further escalation) to a "worst case" (end of the war in 2025 with further escalation) into account. Flight from war affected especially the southern and eastern regions and especially educated women of child-bearing age and their children. With an estimate of more than 20% of refugees not returning, study author Maryna Tverdostup concluded that long-term shrinking will significantly impair the conditions for reconstruction.[562]

The war in Ukraine and the associated emigration, lower birth rates and war-related casualties further deepened the demographic crisis of Russia.[563] Many commentators predict that the situation will be worse than during the 1990s.[564] The UN is projecting that the decline that started in 2021 will continue, and if current demographic conditions persist, Russia's population would be 120 million in fifty years, a decline of about 17%.[565][566]

Since February 2022, hundreds of thousands of Russians have emigrated; estimates range from 370,000 to over 820,000. Combined with mobilisation, this possibly removed roughly half a million to one million working-age males from Russia's population.[567] Studies report that this will have a demographic effect, especially in Russia, that lasts much longer than the conflict, and Putin's time in office.[568]

According to BBC:[569]

They come from different walks of life. Some are journalists like us, but there are also IT experts, designers, artists, academics, lawyers, doctors, PR specialists, and linguists. Most are under 50. Many share western liberal values and hope Russia will be a democratic country one day. Some are LGBTQ+. Sociologists studying the current Russian emigration say there is evidence that those leaving are younger, better educated and wealthier than those staying. More often they are from bigger cities.

According to Johannes Wachs, "The exodus of skilled human capital, sometimes called brain drain, out of Russia may have a significant effect on the course of the war and the Russian economy in the long run."[570] According to a survey, around 15 percent of those who left returned to Russia, either permanently or to settle their affairs.[571]

In November 2023, at the World Russian People's Council, Putin urged Russian women to have eight or more children amid increasing Russian casualties in the invasion.[572]

Environmental impact
Main article: Environmental impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine

An explosion due to the shelling of a tank filled with nitric acid during the Battle of Sievierodonetsk, 31 May 2022
Based on a preliminary assessment, the war has inflicted USD 51 billion in environmental damage in Ukraine; according to a report by the Yale School of the Environment, some 687,000 tons of petrochemicals have burned as a result of shelling, while nearly 1,600 tons of pollutants have leaked into bodies of water. Hazardous chemicals have contaminated around 70 acres of soil, and likely made agricultural activities temporarily impossible.[573] Around 30% of Ukraine's land is now littered with explosives and more than 2.4 million hectares of forest have been damaged.[574]

According to Netherlands-based peace organisation PAX, Russia's "deliberate targeting of industrial and energy infrastructure" has caused "severe" pollution, and the use of explosive weapons has left "millions of tonnes" of contaminated debris in cities and towns.[575] In early June 2023, the Kakhovka Dam, under Russian occupation, was damaged, causing flooding and triggering warnings of an "ecological disaster."[576]

The Ukrainian government, international observers and journalists have described the damage as ecocide.[577] The Ukrainian government is investigating more crimes against the environment and ecocide (a crime in Ukraine).[578] Zelenskyy has met with prominent European figures (Heidi Hautala, Margot Wallstrom, Mary Robinson and Greta Thunberg) to discuss the environmental damage and how to prosecute it.[579]

According to an investigation by NGL Media published in April 2024, Russia has completely destroyed over 60,000 hectares of Ukrainian forests. The investigation stated that long-term ecological consequences may include lowering of the groundwater level, reduction of biodiversity, worsening of air quality, fire outbreaks, and rivers and ponds drying up.[580]

Economic impact
Ukraine
Ukrainian Minister of Economic Development and Trade Yulia Svyrydenko announced that for 2022 Ukraine had a 30.4% loss in their GDP.[581] The Ukrainian statistics service said that the GDP of Ukraine in 2023 grew by 5.3%.[582]

Ukraine began issuing war bonds on March 1, 2022, and the following day the Ukrainian government announced that they had raised 6.14 billion hryvnias.[583] A ban was placed in May 2022 by the European Commission on grain sales in the countries of: Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia with the only exception being if they were transiting through those countries with the ban being lifted in September 2023.[584]

Russia
The Russian economic ministry said that for 2022 the GDP contracted by 2.1%[585] and for 2023 Russia's government said the GDP grew by 3.6%.[586]

A price cap was placed on Russian oil by the Group of 7 (G7) at US$60 on December 5, 2022.[587] The United States banned all imports of Russia oil on March 8, 2022.[588] The European Union placed an embargo on oil products from Russia on February 5, 2023.[587] Other countries that embargoed Russian oil were: Canada, United Kingdom and Australia.[589] Russia itself issued a ban on foreign diesel sales starting on September 21, 2023, before being lifted on October 6.[590]

On April 27, 2024, it was reported that Russia was planning increases in personal income taxes and corporate taxes to help pay for the war.[591]

Peace efforts
Main article: Peace negotiations in the Russian invasion of Ukraine

As of January 2023, Russian President Vladimir Putin made recognition of Russian sovereignty over the annexed territories (pictured) a condition for peace talks with Ukraine.[592]
Peace negotiations between Russia and Ukraine took place on 28 February, 3 March, and 7 March 2022, in the Gomel Region on the Belarus–Ukraine border, with further talks held on 10 March in Turkey and a fourth round of negotiations beginning 14 March.[593]

On 13 July that year, Ukrainian foreign minister Dmytro Kuleba said that peace talks were frozen and Ukraine must first recover the lost territories in the east of the country before negotiations can begin.[594] On 19 July, former Russian President and current Deputy head of the Russian Security Council Dmitry Medvedev, said: "Russia will achieve all its goals. There will be peace – on our terms."[595]

In late September that year, after Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts of Ukraine, Zelenskyy announced that Ukraine would not hold peace talks with Russia while Putin was president and in early October signed a decree to ban such talks.[596][597] In late December that year, Putin's spokesperson Dmitry Peskov and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov said that any peace plan could only proceed from Ukraine's recognition of Russia's sovereignty over the regions it annexed from Ukraine in September 2022.[598][599][600] Ukraine counter proposal requires Moscow to returned the occupied Ukrainian territories and pay war damages.[601] In January 2023, Putin's spokesperson Peskov said that "there is currently no prospect for diplomatic means of settling the situation around Ukraine."[602]

In May 2023, UN Secretary-General António Guterres said peace negotiations to end the Russo-Ukrainian War were "not possible at this moment", saying it was clear that Russia and Ukraine were "completely absorbed in this war" and each "convinced that they can win."[603]

In June 2023, Ukrainian Defence Minister Oleksii Reznikov said that the peace plans presented by China, Brazil and Indonesia are attempts at mediation on behalf of Russia, and "they all currently want to be mediators on Russia's side. That's why this sort of mediation currently doesn't fit for us at all because they aren't impartial."[604] He said that Ukraine was willing to accept China as a mediator only if Beijing could convince Russia to withdraw from all the territories it had occupied.[605]

In December 2023, The New York Times reported that Putin has been signaling through intermediaries since at least September 2022 that "he is open to a ceasefire that freezes the fighting along the current lines." This has been received with skepticism by Ukrainians and their country's supporters, with criticism that it could be an insincere, opportunistic public relations ploy by Russia that would give it time to rebuild its weakened army before renewing the offensive.[601][606] Such concerns have been raised since 2022.[607][608]

See also
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List of invasions in the 21st century
Outline of the Russo-Ukrainian War
2020s in military history
List of conflicts in territory of the former Soviet Union
List of conflicts in Europe
List of interstate wars since 1945
List of invasions and occupations of Ukraine
List of ongoing armed conflicts
List of wars between Russia and Ukraine
List of wars: 2003–present
Russian emigration following the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Red lines in the Russo-Ukrainian War
Notes
 The Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic were Russian-controlled puppet states, having declared their independence from Ukraine in May 2014. In 2022 they received international recognition from each other, Russia, Syria and North Korea, and some other partially recognised states. On 30 September 2022, after a referendum, Russia declared it had formally annexed both entities.
 Russian forces were permitted to stage part of the invasion from Belarusian territory.[1][2] Belarusian territory has also been used to launch missiles into Ukraine.[3] See also: Belarusian involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
 See § Foreign involvement for more details.
 Including military, paramilitary, and 34,000 separatist militias.
 By early September 2022 the US had given 126 M777 howitzer cannons and over 800,000 rounds of 155 mm ammunition for them.[429] By January 2023 the US had donated 250,000 more 155 mm shells to Ukraine. The US is producing 14,000 155 mm shells monthly and plans to increase production to 90,000 shells per month by 2025.[430]
 See here for a detailed breakdown of civilian deaths by oblast, according to Ukrainian authorities.
 The DPR said 1,285 civilians were killed and 4,243 wounded between 1 January 2022 and 22 June 2023,[482][483] of which 8 died and 23 were wounded between 1 January and 25 February 2022,[484] leaving a total of 1,277 killed and 4,220 wounded in the period of the Russian invasion.
 Most likely, new cities meant new industrial cities in Siberia, the construction plans of which were announced by Shoigu in the fall of 2021.[558]
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 "IntelBrief: China Seeks to Balance Its Interests as Russia's War on Ukraine Intensifies". The Soufan Center. 4 March 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2022. Over a week into the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the war has raged on, spurring the most serious humanitarian crisis in Europe since the wars in the Balkans in the 1990s.
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"Why banning men from leaving Ukraine violates their human rights". The Conversation. 8 March 2022.
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 Men, some in their teens, join Ukraine's resistance fighters. DW News. 5 March 2022. Archived from the original on 6 March 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2022 – via YouTube.
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 "İçişleri Bakanı Soylu: 58 bin Ukraynalı savaş sonrası Türkiye'ye geldi" [Interior Minister Soylu: 58 thousand Ukrainians came to Turkey after the war]. BBC (in Turkish). 22 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2022.
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 Butchenko, Maksym (15 April 2022). "V dukhe Stalina. Fil'tratsionnyye lagerya, doprosy i vyvoz v glush' — kak Moskva nasil'no deportiruyet ukraintsev Donbassa" В духе Сталина. Фильтрационные лагеря, допросы и вывоз в глушь — как Москва насильно депортирует украинцев Донбасса [In the spirit of Stalin. Filtration camps, interrogations and removal into the wilderness – how Moscow forcibly deports Ukrainians from Donbass]. NV.ua (in Russian). Retrieved 20 April 2022.
Shapoval, Valentyna (18 April 2022). "Denisova: okkupanty derzhat v fil'tratsionnykh lageryakh RF boleye 20 000 mariupol'tsev" Денисова: оккупанты держат в фильтрационных лагерях РФ более 20 000 мариупольцев [Denisov: occupiers keep more than 20,000 Mariupol residents in filtration camps of the Russian Federation]. Segodnya (in Russian). Retrieved 20 April 2022.
Goricheva, Yuliya; Tokhmakhchi, Аnnа (11 April 2022). ""Razdevali, tatushki moi smotreli". Artem uyekhal iz Mariupolya v "DNR", a potom i iz Rossii. On rasskazyvayet o tom, chto proiskhodilo na granitsakh" "Раздевали, татушки мои смотрели". Артем уехал из Мариуполя в "ДНР", а потом и из России. Он рассказывает о том, что происходило на границах ["They undressed, they looked at my tattoos." Artem left Mariupol for the "DPR", and then from Russia. He talks about what happened at the borders]. Current Time TV (in Russian). Retrieved 20 April 2022.
Hanyukova, Ol'ga (10 April 2022). "Okkupanty sozdali v Rossii lager' dlya deportirovannykh iz Ukrainy: tam soderzhat boleye 400 chelovek" Оккупанты создали в России лагерь для депортированных из Украины: там содержат более 400 человек [The occupiers created a camp in Russia for deportees from Ukraine: more than 400 people are kept there]. Obozrevatel (in Russian). Retrieved 20 April 2022.
Kurpita, Tat'yana (17 April 2022). ""Ne imeli odezhdy, yedy i predmetov gigiyeny": v Rossii obnaruzhili tri lagerya dlya deportirovannykh mariupol'tsev" "Не имели одежды, еды и предметов гигиены": в России обнаружили три лагеря для депортированных мариупольцев ["They didn't have clothes, food and hygiene items": three camps for deported Mariupol residents were found in Russia]. TSN (in Russian). Retrieved 20 April 2022.
Pylypenko, Yevgeniy (24 March 2022). "Rossiya sozdala bliz Donetska fil'tratsionnyy lager' dlya ukraintsev – razvedka" Россия создала близ Донецка фильтрационный лагерь для украинцев – разведка [Russia has created a filtration camp for Ukrainians near Donetsk – intelligence]. LIGA.net (in Russian). Retrieved 20 April 2022.
Klimov, Aleksandr (5 April 2022). "V Khar'kovskoy oblasti okkupanty sozdayut fil'tratsionnyye lagerya — Denisova" В Харьковской области оккупанты создают фильтрационные лагеря — Денисова [Invaders create filtration camps in Kharkiv region – Denisova]. NV.ua (in Russian). Retrieved 20 April 2022.
Ball, Tom (20 March 2022). "Ukraine accuses Russia of killing 56 care home residents in Luhansk". The Times. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
"Foto. Okkupanty stroyat fil'tratsionnyye lagerya dlya ukraintsev" Фото. Оккупанты строят фильтрационные лагеря для украинцев [A Photo. Occupiers build filtration camps for Ukrainians]. sport.ua (in Russian). 28 March 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
 Kupriyanova, Olga (24 March 2022). "Fil'tratsionnyye lagerya i trudoustroystvo na Sakhaline: ukraintsev iz okkupirovannykh gorodov prinuditel'no otpravlyayut v rossiyu" Фильтрационные лагеря и трудоустройство на Сахалине: украинцев из оккупированных городов принудительно отправляют в россию [Filtration camps and employment on Sakhalin: Ukrainians from occupied cities are forcibly sent to Russia]. 1+1 (in Russian). Retrieved 20 April 2022.
 "Putin i Shoygu planirovali sozdat' kontslagerya dlya ukraintsev v Zapadnoy Sibiri, – Danilov" Путин и Шойгу планировали создать концлагеря для украинцев в Западной Сибири, – Данилов [Putin and Shoigu planned to create concentration camps for Ukrainians in Western Siberia – Danilov]. Цензор.НЕТ (in Russian). 21 April 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2022. ^"Putin i Shoygu planirovali sozdat' kontslagerya dlya ukraintsev v Zapadnoy Sibiri – Danilov" Путин и Шойгу планировали создать концлагеря для украинцев в Западной Сибири – Данилов [Putin and Shoigu planned to create concentration camps for Ukrainians in Western Siberia – Danilov]. LIGA (in Russian). 22 April 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2022.
 "Shoygu nazval mesta dlya stroitel'stva novykh gorodov v Sibiri" Шойгу назвал места для строительства новых городов в Сибири [Shoigu named places for the construction of new cities in Siberia]. РБК (in Russian). 6 September 2021.
 Margolina, Sonja (9 October 2023). "Nur wer fällt, hat richtig gelebt – Russlands Krieg gegen die Ukraine läuft immer mehr auf eine Säuberung der eigenen Gesellschaft hinaus". Neue Zürcher Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 14 October 2023. Noch nie haben zwei Nationen mit einem Durchschnittsalter von über 40 Jahren Krieg gegeneinander geführt. [...] Noch nie haben zwei Nationen mit einem Kriegsindex von 0,7 miteinander die Waffen gekreuzt.
 Stone, Lyman (22 March 2023). "The Demography of War: Ukraine vs. Russia". IFStudies. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
 Kulu, Hill; Christison, Sarah; Liu, Chia; Mikolai, Júlia (30 March 2023). "The war, refugees, and the future of Ukraine's population". Population, Space and Place. 29 (4). doi:10.1002/psp.2656. hdl:10023/27301. S2CID 257876682.
Libanova, Ella (27 June 2023). "Ukraine's Demography in the Second Year of the Full-Fledged War". Focus Ukraine. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
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 Goble, Paul (18 August 2022). "Russia's Demographic Collapse Is Accelerating". Eurasia Daily Monitor. 19 (127). Washington, D.C.: Jamestown Foundation.
 "World Population Prospects 2022, Standard Projections, Compact File, Variant tab, Total Population, as of 1 January column". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 2022.
 "Russia's population nightmare is going to get even worse". The Economist. 4 March 2023.
 Jenkins, Brian Michael (28 February 2023). "Consequences of the War in Ukraine: A Bleak Outlook for Russia". The RAND Blog. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
 "She had a dream job. Now, she's part of a massive brain drain hammering Russia". NPR.
"Russlands Braindrain: Ein Land verliert sein Potenzial". ORF (in German). 9 July 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
"The Putin Exodus: The New Russian Brain Drain". oei.fu-berlin.de (in German). 21 March 2019. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
 "Why are people leaving Russia, who are they, and where are they going?". BBC News. 3 June 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
 Wachs, Johannes (15 May 2023). "Digital traces of brain drain: developers during the Russian invasion of Ukraine". EPJ Data Science. 12 (1): 14. doi:10.1140/epjds/s13688-023-00389-3. PMC 10184088. PMID 37215283.
 "The Russians returning home from self-imposed exile". Financial Times. 26 October 2023. Retrieved 27 October 2023.
 Sharma, Shweta (30 November 2023). "Putin asks Russian women to have 'eight or more' children amid deaths in his war". The Independent. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
 "One Year In, Russia's War on Ukraine Has Inflicted $51 Billion in Environmental Damage" e360.yale.edu. 22 February 2023. Accessed 25 September 2023.
 "'Environmental Destruction Is a Form of Warfare': Thunberg Joins Ecocide Investigation in Ukraine". commondreams.org. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
 "Ten-Step plan to address environmental impact of war in Ukraine" PAX for Peace. 24 February 2023. Accessed 25 September 2023.
 Finlay, Madeleine; Cox, Joel; Bury, Ellie (13 June 2023). "Kakhovka dam destruction: why is Ukraine calling it 'ecocide'? – podcast". the Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
Talmazan, Yuliya; Arkin, Daniel; Kaufman, Sarah; Mayer, Daryna (6 June 2023). "Ukraine accuses Russia of blowing up major dam". NBC News. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
Hallam, Jonny; Pennington, Josh; Regan, Helen; Voitovych, Olga; Nasser, Irene; Shukla, Sebastian; Kottasová, Ivana; Mezzofiore, Gianluca; Shelley, Jo (6 June 2023). "Collapse of critical Ukrainian dam sparks region-wide evacuations. Here's what we know". CNN. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
 "The Environmental Cost of the War in Ukraine". International Relations Review. 2 June 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
Graham-Harrison, Emma (27 August 2022). "Toxins in soil, blasted forests – Ukraine counts cost of Putin's 'ecocide'". The Observer. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
"Ukrainians hope to rebuild greener country after Russia's war ravages environment". The Independent. 19 March 2022. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
Clara Gutman-Argemí; Ashley Ahn; Brawley Benson (9 June 2023). "Ukrainians Are Accusing Russia of Ecocide. What Does That Mean?". Foreign Policy. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
"Ukraine launches "ecocide" and war crimes probe into Nova Kakhovka dam incident". CNN. 7 June 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
 Yermak, Andriy; Wallström, Margot (16 August 2023). "Russia is committing grave acts of ecocide in Ukraine – and the results will harm the whole world". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
Graham-Harrison, Emma (27 August 2022). "Toxins in soil, blasted forests – Ukraine counts cost of Putin's 'ecocide'". The Guardian. ISSN 0029-7712. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
Santora, Marc (17 August 2023). "As Dead Dolphins Wash Ashore, Ukraine Builds a Case of Ecocide Against Russia". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
 Gigova, Radina (2 July 2023). "Russia is accused of 'ecocide' in Ukraine. But what does that mean?". CNN. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
"Zelenskyy meets Greta Thunberg, Mary Robinson to address war's effect on Ukraine's ecology". TheJournal.ie. Press Association. 29 June 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
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 Horowitz, Julia (5 January 2022). "Ukraine's economy shrank by more than 30% in 2022". CNN (Digital). Retrieved 11 May 2024.
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 Tan, Weizhen; Wang, Christine (2 March 2022). "Ukraine raises $270 million from sale of war bonds to fund army as Russia's invasion continues". CNBC (Digital). Retrieved 10 May 2024.
 "How much grain is Ukraine exporting and how is it leaving the country?". BBC (Digital). 2 April 2024. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
 "Russian economy shrank 2.1% in 2022, much less than expected". Al Jazeera. 21 February 2023. Retrieved 11 May 2024.
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 Sonne, Paul (27 April 2024). "Putin's War Will Soon Reach Russians' Tax Bills". New York Times. Retrieved 30 April 2024.
 "Putin Signals Readiness for Peace Talks if Kyiv Cedes Occupied Regions". The Moscow Times. 5 January 2023.
 Hopkins, Valerie (28 February 2022). "Initial talks between Russia and Ukraine yield no resolution". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 14 March 2022. Retrieved 16 March 2022.
Reevell, Patrick; Hutchinson, Bill (2 March 2022). "2nd round of talks between Russia and Ukraine end with no cease-fire". ABC News. Archived from the original on 14 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
"Ukraine and Russia hold third round of talks". Deutsche Welle. Reuters, Agence France-Presse, Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 7 March 2022. Archived from the original on 14 March 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2022.
Roshchina, Olena (28 February 2022). Переговори делегацій України та Росії почалися [Negotiations between the delegations of Ukraine and Russia began]. Українська правда [Ukrainska Pravda] (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 14 March 2022. Retrieved 7 March 2022. Деталі: Переговори відбуваються на Гомельщині на березі річки Прип'ять. Із міркувань безпеки точне місце організатори переговорів не називають. [Details: Negotiations are taking place in the Gomel region on the banks of the Pripyat River. For security reasons, the organisers of the talks did not name the exact location.]
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 "Moscow To Achieve Ukraine Goals Thanks to 'Patience' – Lavrov". The Moscow Times. 28 December 2022.
 Bengali, Shashank (29 December 2022). "Hopes for Talks Dim in Ukraine As Sides Dig In". The New York Times. p. 1.
 "Putin Quietly Signals He Is Open to a Cease-Fire in Ukraine". The New York Times. 23 December 2023.
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 Crowley, Michael (9 February 2024). "U.S. Rejects Putin's Latest Call for Ukraine Negotiations". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
 Dickinson, Peter (22 November 2022). "Putin's peace ploy is a ruse to rearm". Atlantic Council. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
 Erlanger, Steven (29 March 2022). "Peace Talks May Be Little More Than Russian Tactics, Analysts Say". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
Further reading
Borshchevskaya, Anna (2022). Putin's War in Syria. 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK: I. B. Tauris.
D'Anieri, Paul (31 October 2019). Ukraine and Russia: From Civilized Divorce to Uncivil War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48609-5 – via Google Books.
Harding, Luke. Invasion: The Inside Story of Russia's Bloody War and Ukraine's Fight for Survival. 2022. Vintage Press.
Marples, David R., ed. (2022). The War in Ukraine's Donbas: Origins, Contexts, and the Future. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-9633865972.
Menon, Rajan; Rumer, Eugene B. (6 February 2015). Conflict in Ukraine: The Unwinding of the Post–Cold War Order. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-53629-5. OCLC 1029335958 – via Google Books.
"The Cost of War to Ukraine". The Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies. Royal United Services Institute. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
Schwirtz, Michael; Troianovski, Anton; Al-Hlou, Yousur; Froliak, Masha; Entous, Adam; Gibbons-Neff, Thomas (16 December 2022). "Putin's War: The Inside Story of a Catastrophe". The New York Times.
Smith, Christopher M. (15 March 2022). Ukraine's Revolt, Russia's Revenge. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-3925-8. OCLC 1287616684 – via Google Books.
Trofimov, Yaroslav (2024). Our Enemies Will Vanish. The Russian Invasion and Ukraine's War of Independence. Penguin Random House. ISBN 9780593655184.
Watling, Jack; Reynolds, Nick (22 April 2022). Operation Z: The Death Throes of an Imperial Delusion (PDF) (Report). Royal United Services Institute.
Wiegrefe, Klaus (15 February 2022). "NATO's Eastward Expansion: Is Vladimir Putin Right?". Der Spiegel. ISSN 2195-1349. Archived from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2022.
Wood, Elizabeth A.; Pomeranz, William E.; Merry, E. Wayne; Trudolyubov, Maxim (15 December 2015). Roots of Russia's War in Ukraine. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-80138-6. OCLC 1008637056 – via Google Books.
External links
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Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II

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Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II
Elizabeth II on the balcony of Buckingham Palace
Jubilee beacon lit at Mount Snowdon
Flyover at the ceremony for renaming Aspen Island as Queen Elizabeth II Island
The Platinum Jubilee Pudding
Families from the British Embassy Washington planted trees along Massachusetts Avenue to mark Her Majesty The Queen's Platinum Jubilee
Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern speaking at the service of celebration at St Paul's Cathedral, Wellington
From top, left to right: Elizabeth II on the balcony of Buckingham Palace; Jubilee beacon at Mount Snowdon, Wales; flyover at renaming ceremony of Queen Elizabeth II Island, Australia; the Platinum Pudding; Families from the British Embassy Washington planting jubilee trees along Massachusetts Avenue; Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern speaking at a Service of Celebration in Wellington, New Zealand
Genre    Jubilee of the monarch of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms and Head of the Commonwealth
Date(s)    6 February 2022
Country    
United Kingdom
Canada
Australia
New Zealand
Jamaica
The Bahamas
Grenada
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Tuvalu
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Belize
Antigua and Barbuda
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Crown Dependencies
British Overseas Territories
Commonwealth of Nations
Previous event    Sapphire Jubilee of Elizabeth II
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The Platinum Jubilee of Elizabeth II was the international celebration in 2022 marking the 70th anniversary of the accession of Queen Elizabeth II on 6 February 1952. It was the first time that any monarch in British history celebrated a platinum jubilee, as is the case in the histories of the other Commonwealth realms.[n 1]

Initiatives to commemorate the jubilee were announced by the governments of many realms—including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and the United Kingdom—of territories, such as the Cayman Islands and Gibraltar, and celebrations were also held in other Commonwealth member states, like the Gambia, Malaysia, Malta, Pakistan, and Samoa. Leaders from across the world, including from China, North Korea, France, Germany, Israel, and the United States, sent messages of congratulations to the Queen on reaching the milestone. In the United Kingdom, there was an extra bank holiday on 3 June and the usual spring bank holiday was moved from the end of May to 2 June to create the four-day Platinum Jubilee Central Weekend from Thursday, 2 June, to Sunday, 5 June.[1] Commemorative stamps and coins were issued by several Commonwealth nations and beacons were lit in every Commonwealth capital for the first time. In many places, trees were planted in the Queen's honour.

The Queen died in her Platinum Jubilee year, on 8 September 2022, at the age of 96. Her funeral took place at Westminster Abbey in London on 19 September 2022 and she was buried at the King George VI Memorial Chapel in Windsor Castle later that day.

Accession Day 2022

The Queen's Accession Day message released on 5 February 2022
The Jubilee marked the 70th anniversary of the accession of Queen Elizabeth II on 6 February 1952.[2][3]

In her 2022 Accession Day message, the Queen said that she hoped the platinum jubilee would bring together families and friends, neighbours, and communities. She said that the jubilee "affords me a time to reflect on the goodwill shown to me by people of all nationalities, faiths and ages in this country and around the world over these years". She thanked everyone for their support, loyalty and affection, and signed the message "Your Servant".[4][5] She said of her 70-year reign and the future:

As I look ahead with a sense of hope and optimism to the year of my platinum jubilee, I am reminded of how much we can be thankful for. These last seven decades have seen extraordinary progress socially, technologically and culturally that have benefitted us all; and I am confident that the future will offer similar opportunities to us and especially to the younger generations in the United Kingdom and throughout the Commonwealth.[4]

Pictures and footage of the Queen working from her red boxes at Sandringham House were released.[6][7] The then-Prince of Wales said that the Queen's devotion to the welfare of all her people inspired still greater admiration with each passing year.[8]

Tributes and messages of congratulations came from leaders all over the world, including US President Joe Biden, Chinese leader Xi Jinping, German Chancellor Olaf Scholz, King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, King Vajiralongkorn of Thailand, King Mohammed VI of Morocco, UAE President Sheikh Khalifa, Israeli President Isaac Herzog, and Vietnamese President Nguyễn Xuân Phúc.[9] A congratulatory message was also sent from Margareta, Custodian of the Crown of Romania.[10]

Jubilee emblems

Emblem in the United Kingdom

Canadian emblem

Australian emblem

Emblem in New Zealand
United Kingdom
The emblem for the platinum jubilee in the United Kingdom was announced in August 2021, following a competition which was judged by industry experts. The winning design was created by 19-year-old graphic design student Edward Roberts from Nottinghamshire.[11]

The regal purple used in the emblem has been closely matched to the purple in the Queen's Robe of Estate, worn by her at the Coronation in 1953. A continuous platinum line in the shape of St Edward's Crown features the number "70" at the top of the Crown, signifying the Queen's 70-year reign and her platinum jubilee. Roberts included a circle to border the Crown, to create the impression of a royal seal. The emblem's typeface is Perpetua, which means "forever", and is similar to the font style that appeared on the Queen's Coronation Order of Service in 1953.[12][13]

Canada
The Canadian platinum jubilee emblem includes Elizabeth II's royal cypher above a numeral 70 in light-grey, the colour alluding to platinum. The cypher and numeral are surrounded by a seven-sided figure, adorned with seven maple leaves and pearls, representing each decade of the Queen's reign. Multiple elements also symbolise celebration, with the rounded edges being shaped like a flower petal and the maple leaves being positioned in a manner that resembles fireworks.[14][15]

Australia
The Australian Platinum Jubilee Emblem was unveiled by the Australian Government in March 2022. The emblem can be used for official and recognised events in Australia to celebrate the jubilee.[16][17] The design is a stylised representation of the Queen's Wattle Spray Brooch, which was gifted to the Queen during her first visit to Australia in 1954. The emblem contains three colours – platinum, gold and purple. The platinum colour represents the Queen's 70 years on the throne, and the purple colour symbolises royalty. The gold is drawn from the golden wattle, Australia's national floral emblem. The font used is Perpetua, which means 'forever', which acknowledges that the Queen was Australia's "first platinum" monarch.[16][17]

New Zealand
On Accession Day, the New Zealand platinum jubilee emblem was unveiled. The emblem, approved by the Queen, was prepared by Phillip O'Shea, New Zealand Herald of Arms.[18] Within a platinum five-sided frame is the Queen's royal cypher, with the Māori inscription "Te Hokotoru Mā Ngahuru", which means "three twenties plus ten", an allusion to the Queen's 70-year reign.[18] In the base, the years 1952 and 2022 are in gold, and placed on the poutama (step) design in the traditional colours of red-ochre and white. The design represents "steps of service", namely, the seven decades of public service by the Queen.[18]

Celebrations throughout the Commonwealth
The celebration plans were announced by Buckingham Palace on 10 January 2022.[19]

Jubilee beacon lit in New Zealand
For the first time, jubilee beacons were lit in every capital city of each Commonwealth country.[20]

The Royal Mint and the Royal Canadian Mint partnered to create a two-coin set, with each mint designing a coin for the set.[21] The silver coin designed by the Royal Mint has an equestrian portrait of the Queen on the reverse and a royal mantle on the obverse. The silver coin designed by the Royal Canadian Mint has a reverse design that depicts the Queen in 1952, while the obverse has the effigy of the Queen used on Canadian coins since 2003.[22]

The Commonwealth Day Service at Westminster Abbey on 14 March reflected the jubilee with a special focus on the role that service plays in the lives of people and communities across the Commonwealth.[23]

Members of the Royal Family undertook a series of royal tours of Commonwealth countries.[24] The governors-general of Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Saint Lucia travelled to the United Kingdom in June to represent their respective countries at jubilee festivities.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]

Left to right: Governor-General of New Zealand Dame Cindy Kiro; Linda McMartin, spouse of David Hurley; Governor-General of Australia David Hurley; Governor General of Canada Mary Simon, and Simon's spouse, Whit Fraser at St Paul's Cathedral, London, for the Service of Thanksgiving for the Platinum Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II on 3 June 2022
In the evening of 1 June, the official jubilee photograph of the Queen was released. The portrait, by Ranald Mackechnie, was taken in the Victoria Vestibule at Windsor Castle on 25 May. The photo shows the Queen in a blue dress, with the statue of Charles II seen behind a window in the background.[35][36]

In a special message, the Queen said "many happy memories will be created" over the next four days. She thanked everyone involved in convening communities, families, neighbours and friends to mark the Jubilee.[37]

Following the platinum jubilee weekend, the Queen released a thank you message in which she said:[38]

When it comes to how to mark seventy years as your Queen, there is no guidebook to follow. It really is a first. But I have been humbled and deeply touched that so many people have taken to the streets to celebrate my platinum jubilee. While I may not have attended every event in person, my heart has been with you all; and I remain committed to serving you to the best of my ability, supported by my family.

The Queen's Baton for the 2022 Commonwealth Games featured a platinum strand along its length.[39]

United Kingdom
This is the first time that any British monarch has celebrated a platinum jubilee.[40]

There was an extra bank holiday on 3 June and the usual Spring bank holiday was moved from the end of May to 2 June, to create the platinum jubilee bank holiday weekend from 2 to 5 June.[41] The British government promised a "once-in-a-generation show" that would "mix the best of British ceremonial splendour and pageantry with cutting-edge artistic and technological displays".[42] The March 2021 budget allocated £28 million to fund Jubilee celebrations, which did not include the cost of the extra bank holiday.[43][44] In an August 2021 impact assessment report, the British government estimated a £2.39 billion loss in GDP due to business closures during the extra bank holiday.[44]

The jubilee was expected to bring a £1.2 billion boost to the UK economy.[45] The Centre for Retail Research estimated that consumers in the United Kingdom would spend $356 million on Platinum Jubilee memorabilia.[46] In July 2022, it was reported that retail sales dipped by 0.1% in June despite jubilee celebrations, which was less than what was expected amid the economic crisis, but still showed a downward trajectory.[47] The food sector was the only sector that saw sales volumes spike by 3.1%.[47]

Queen's Green Canopy
Main article: The Queen's Green Canopy
The Queen's Green Canopy campaign was launched in May 2021.[48] The campaign invites people from the United Kingdom to plant a tree to make the local environment greener, and serve as a "special gift" to the Queen.[49][50] By March 2022 more than one million trees had been planted.[51]

A 70 ft (21 m) sculpture called 'Tree of Trees' was erected outside Buckingham Palace for the June celebrations. The sculpture, which contains 350 native British trees in the form of one giant tree, reflects the more than one million trees planted during the Green Canopy initiative. The trees will be gifted to selected community groups for planting after the celebrations.[52]

Jubilee stamps and coins
The Royal Mint released one of the largest ever commemorative collections,[53] including commemorative £5 crowns and 50p coins; the first time a royal event has been commemorated on a 50p coin.[54] The 50p coin is designed to feature the Queen's royal cypher within the 0 of the number 70 on the reverse.[55] The £5 crown features the quartered shield of the Royal Arms on the reverse.[56] Both coins show the Queen on horseback on the obverse.[57]

The Royal Mint also produced a 220 mm (8.7 in) diameter 15 kg (33 lb) coin, which was commissioned by a private UK collector. It is the largest coin the Mint has ever produced. The £15,000 denomination coin was designed by coinage artist John Bergdahl and took nearly 400 hours to make. The obverse features a commemorative design depicting the Queen on horseback, while the reverse depicts the Queen's cypher surrounded by floral emblems of the four nations of the United Kingdom.[53][58]

The Mint also released a new series of three coins, titled The Queen's Reign. The first coin focuses on the Queen's role as the 'fountain of honour'. The second coin highlights the Queen's role as patron of numerous charities. The third coin celebrates the Queen's role as Head of the Commonwealth, an organisation that she calls her "family of nations". Each coin in the collection features the Queen's signature in the centre; the first time that her signature has been featured on UK coinage.[59] The coins were designed by Irish artist and illustrator P. J. Lynch, who was "inspired by the Queen's hands and the work they represent".[60]

In February 2022, the Royal Mail released eight new stamps. The new set of stamps features photographs of the Queen throughout her reign, which commemorate different aspects of her royal duties, from the Trooping the Colour to worldwide tours.[61]

Events leading up to June
Several glasses containing yellow and white layered trifle
Platinum Puddings displayed at a British Library event in May 2022
The Platinum Pudding competition was launched on 10 January 2022 by The Big Jubilee Lunch and Fortnum & Mason throughout the United Kingdom to find a pudding to celebrate the Jubilee. Five finalists were selected to prepare their creations for a judging panel, with the winning recipe being made available to the public at Big Jubilee Lunches during the Jubilee weekend.[62][63] The winning recipe, by Jemma Melvin from Southport, is a lemon Swiss roll and Amaretti trifle.[64] The winner was announced on 12 May in the BBC One documentary The Jubilee Pudding: 70 Years in the Baking, with the Duchess of Cornwall in attendance.[65]

On 4 February, pictures and footage taken two weeks earlier in Windsor Castle's Oak Room were released, featuring the Queen viewing memorabilia from this and prior jubilees. The display included a golden jubilee letter from a nine-year-old boy named Chris, titled A Recipe for a Perfect Queen, which includes ingredients of "jewels, posh gowns, loyalty, hard work, healthiness, and courage".[66][67] On 5 February, the Queen hosted a reception at Sandringham House for volunteer groups, pensioners and members of the local Women's Institute group. At the reception, the Queen met Angela Wood, a former cookery student who helped create the original recipe for Coronation chicken in 1953.[68][69] The Queen's Accession Day message was released later that evening.

On Accession Day, Prime Minister Johnson, the Leader of the Opposition Sir Keir Starmer, and the Archbishop of Canterbury were among notable figures releasing statements congratulating the Queen. Tributes were also paid by former British prime ministers.[70][71][72] Outdoor billboards across the United Kingdom, including Piccadilly Circus, were lit up.[73][74] Special services were held in cathedrals. In Exeter Cathedral, the choir sang an anthem written for Queen Elizabeth I by the 16th century English composer William Byrd.[75]

Stephen Kerr congratulating the Queen at the Scottish parliament, 9 February 2022
Gun salutes were held on 7 February, the anniversary of the accession. A 41-gun salute was fired by the King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery in London's Green Park. At the Tower of London, the Honourable Artillery Company fired 62 rounds.[76] A 21-gun salute was fired at Edinburgh Castle by 105 Regiment, Royal Artillery.[77] In Wales, a gun-salute was fired in the grounds of Cardiff Castle, organised by 160th (Welsh) Brigade. In Northern Ireland, the Reservists of 206 Ulster Battery Royal Artillery fired a 21-gun salute at Hillsborough Castle.[78]

On 16 March, a concert titled The Queen's Platinum Jubilee – 70 Years took place at the Royal Albert Hall. The event featured music from the Queen's coronation and other key moments of her reign, performed by the Royal Philharmonic Concert Orchestra.[79][80] Prince and Princess Michael of Kent were in attendance.[81]

The Lord Mayor's Platinum Jubilee Big Curry Lunch took place at the Guildhall, London, on 7 April.[82] Princesses Beatrice and Eugenie attended the event.[83]

On four evenings from 12 to 15 May, the 2022 Royal Windsor Horse Show at Windsor Castle, titled A Gallop Through History, concluded with a 90-minute celebration in tribute to the Queen, featuring 500 horses and 1,000 dancers, with various members of the Royal Family, including Duke and Duchess of Gloucester, the Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar, and the Princess Royal in attendance.[84][85] Princess Beatrice and her husband, Edoardo Mapelli Mozzi, also attended the charity preview of the event.[85] The Queen attended on 15 May.[85] The Queen's youngest granddaughter, Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor, drove in the carriage that once belonged to her grandfather, the Duke of Edinburgh, and had been featured in his funeral.[86] Actors Helen Mirren and Tom Cruise were involved, with Mirren playing Queen Elizabeth I.[87]

Union flag buntings in Sloane Square, May 2022

Platinum jubilee banners in Borehamwood, May 2022
On 13 May, a 550-mile (890 km) torch relay across Suffolk began. Starting in Brandon, The relay travelled 250 towns and villages, ending at the Suffolk Show in Ipswich on 1 June.[88][89]

On 23 May, the Queen visited the Chelsea Flower Show, which featured four commemorative installations. In The Queen's Platinum Jubilee Garden, laser-cut steel silhouettes of the Queen were featured, surrounded by 70 planted terracotta pots planted with Lily of the Valley, the Queen's favourite flower.[90][91][92] At the show, display of roses, featuring new cultivars created to mark the jubilee, won a gold medal. The exhibit, by Shropshire-based grower David Austin Roses, featured pink-apricot roses named Elizabeth.[93]

On 24 May, the Senedd passed a motion to congratulate the Queen. First Minister Mark Drakeford said the jubilee events in Wales would be "an indication of the deep respect in which the Queen is held, and an expression of the gratitude for her many years of selfless service". Conservative leader Andrew RT Davies said she had held Wales "deeply in her heart" over her 70-year reign. Plaid Cymru leader Adam Price praised the "empathy" the Queen had shown after the 1966 Aberfan disaster.[94][95]

On 26 May, both Houses of Parliament debated a Humble Address to congratulate the Queen. Prime Minister Boris Johnson said the United Kingdom will "show with every bonfire, every concert and street party, and every aerobatic display a love and devotion to reciprocate the love, devotion and leadership she has shown to the whole country over seven decades".[96][97] He said:

She has seen an empire transformed into a happy Commonwealth that countries are now bidding to join. In the thousand-year history of this place, no monarch has seen such an increase in the longevity, prosperity or opportunity — or the freedom — of the British people. No monarch has seen such technical advances, in many of which British scientists have played a leading part, from the dawn of the internet to the use of the world's first approved covid vaccine. No monarch, by their efforts, dedication and achievement, better deserves the attribute of greatness. For me, she is already Elizabeth the Great.[98]

A new BBC documentary, Elizabeth: The Unseen Queen, aired on 29 May. The film includes unseen footage from the Queen's archive, and is narrated by the Queen herself.[99]

In late May, the Reading-based Republic group put on posters with the slogan "Make Elizabeth the Last" in different regions within the UK, using £43,000 garnered from crowdfunding.[100]

From 30 May to 3 June, HMY Britannia hosted 65 former crew members for Yotties Week. Celebrations included celebratory dishes and cocktails in the Royal Deck Tea Room, musical entertainment for visitors in The State Apartments on 2 June, and a city-wide Corgi Treasure Hunt.[101]

Nicola Sturgeon speaking in the Scottish Parliament, 1 June 2022
On 1 June, the First Minister of Scotland Nicola Sturgeon moved a motion in the Scottish Parliament congratulating the Queen.[102] She said that the Scottish Government would present the Queen with a limited edition Johnnie Walker whisky, with a special design to celebrate the beauty of Scotland's flora and fauna, and a throw made from the tartan commissioned in honour of the three bridges across the Forth.[103][102]

Schools and nurseries across the UK organised events and parties.[104][105][106][107][108] St Paul's C.E Primary School in Oldham organised a re-enactment of the Queen's coronation in 1953.[109]

Central weekend

RFA Mounts Bay moored at Greenwich in London during the jubilee weekend[110]
The late May bank holiday was moved to Thursday 2 June with an additional bank holiday on Friday 3 June, making a four-day weekend.[111][112][113]

Big screens were placed in The Mall in London, Edinburgh's Princes Street Gardens and in Cardiff's Bute Park for members of the public to watch the events taking place across the Bank Holiday weekend.[114] Members of the Royal Family also carried out engagements across the UK during the bank holiday weekend.[115][116] The Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall are expected to remain in England.[115]

More than 16,000 street parties were expected to be held over the weekend.[117]

In England and Wales, pubs, clubs and bars were allowed to stay open for extra two hours each day from Thursday to Saturday.[118] During the weekend, Sandringham and Balmoral were open to visitors,[19] and the Manchester Flower Show featured royal-themed displays.[119]

2 June

The Duchess of Cornwall and the Duchess of Cambridge riding in a carriage at Trooping the Colour

The Platinum Jubilee Flypast; fifteen RAF Eurofighter Typhoons making the figure "70".
The Queen's birthday parade, also known as Trooping the Colour, which usually takes place on the second Saturday of June, was held on Thursday, 2 June. Over 1,400 parading soldiers, 200 horses and 400 musicians came together in the traditional parade.[20][120] The event closed with the Queen and Royal Family observing a flypast from the balcony of Buckingham Palace.[121] The balcony was "limited to Her Majesty and those members of the royal family who are currently undertaking official public duties on behalf of the Queen".[122] The flypast consisted of more than 70 aircraft of the Royal Air Force, Fleet Air Arm and Army Air Corps, including the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, the Red Arrows and fifteen Typhoon fighters forming the number "70".[123]

A flotilla of 70 vessels, comprising sloops, trawlers, tugs, patrol boats and more, sailed from Hull Marina to the Humber Bridge. The event re-enacted the Humber flotilla of 60 boats in 2012 for the Queen's diamond jubilee, and the occasion in 1897 when watermen gathered their boats on the Humber in celebration of Queen Victoria's 60 years on the throne.[124] In Herefordshire, a giant lion puppet was paraded during Leominster Festival.[125]

The tradition of lighting beacons was repeated across the Commonwealth. At Windsor Castle, the Queen lit the principal beacon by touching a glittering globe. At Buckingham Palace, the Duke of Cambridge represented the Queen as the "Tree of Trees" was lit. More than 3,500 beacons were lit around the world.[126][127]

3 June
On 3 June, a service of thanksgiving for the Queen's reign was held at St Paul's Cathedral.[20] The Archbishop of York praised the Queen for being "still in the saddle" and thanked her "for staying the course".[128] After the service, members of the royal family attended a reception at London's Guildhall, hosted by the Lord Mayor.[129] The Queen did not attend these events, after having experienced "discomfort" at Trooping the Colour on 2 June.[130]

Princess Anne visited Edinburgh Zoo, where she met Ukrainian orphans. She visited HMS Albion and inspected a guard of honour before boarding the ship, where she met members of the ship's company and representatives from charities across Scotland supported by the Queen and Anne as patrons.[131]

Platinum jubilee parade in Newmarket on 3 June
The Corby Pole Fair was held to coincide with the jubilee.[132] In Newmarket, a parade was held.[133] In central London, more than 100 corgis took part in a parade organised by the UK Corgi Club and Great Corgi Club of Britain.[134][135]

4 June
On 4 June, the Princess Royal attended the Derby at Epsom Downs. The Queen watched the Derby on television.[136]

The Royal Forth Yacht Club organised a Parade of Sail with about 20 boats sailing between Newhaven and Granton Harbour in Edinburgh. At Kelso, in the Scottish Borders, the celebrations involved a parade and re-enactment of the coronation.[137]

The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar visited Northern Ireland. At Royal Avenue in Belfast, they attended a 1950s-themed celebration. The couple met groups of performers, and learnt about the city's diverse communities, which were explored through fashion, photography, music and dance. The Earl also met older members of the local community, brought together by Age Friendly Belfast, while the Countess joined in with craft activities, making crowns and toy corgis with school children. In Bangor, the Countess danced in the new Platinum Ballroom while the Earl pulled a pint in a 1950s-themed bar.[138]

The Great Field platinum jubilee parkrun, Poundbury, Dorchester
In the evening, a concert, 'Platinum Party at the Palace', took place at Buckingham Palace.[20][120] The BBC produced and broadcast it, and distributed it via the European Broadcasting Union's Eurovision network, like the Diamond Jubilee Concert. The public were invited to apply to attend the event.[19] The event opened with a short two-minute film, produced by Buckingham Palace, BBC Studios, and Heyday Films/StudioCanal UK. The short film featured the Queen having tea with Paddington Bear, based on the 2014 film, and voiced by Ben Whishaw. It is one of the few times that the Queen has appeared in an acting role.[139]

Drones forming a corgi above Buckingham Palace during the jubilee concert
Cardiff Castle hosted a concert featuring Welsh performers including Aled Jones, Bonnie Tyler, the Pendyrus Male Voice Choir, and "drumming weatherman" Owain Wyn Evans. The concert concluded with a specially produced "Singing in the Reign" programme celebrating Welsh hits from the past 70 years.[140] The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, along with Prince George and Princess Charlotte of Cambridge, attended concert rehearsals earlier in the day.[141]

A vegan festival took place at Bath Pavilion.[142]

5 June
People were encouraged to have a Big Jubilee Lunch on 5 June, the last day of the extended bank holiday, to enable communities to celebrate their connections and get to know each other better.[20] More than 85,000 people signed up to host Big Lunches and 16,000 street parties were held across the United Kingdom.[143][144] A platinum jubilee picnic in Windsor was expected to become the longest ever held, breaking a record set in Memphis, Tennessee, in 2019. The organiser said the party would involve a 500-metre-long (550 yd) table – 100 yards (91 m) longer than the previous record, set at the May International Festival in Memphis.[145] The UK's longest ever street party was held in Morecambe, where 500 tables were set up over the length of 1.6 miles (2.6 km).[146] The Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall attended a lunch at The Oval cricket ground in south London, where a 12-metre-long (39 ft) cake prepared by the National Bakery School was served.[147][148] The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge joined a lunch in Ladbroke Grove, and earlier the Duchess and her three children had baked cakes for a street party in Cardiff.[149][150] The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar joined a lunch near Windsor Castle.[147] Princess Beatrice and Princess Eugenie attended a lunch organised by Westminster City Council for local volunteer and community groups who responded to the crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.[143]

A pageant featuring approximately 5,000 people from across the UK and the Commonwealth took place, with circus, carniva, costumed performers and 11 James Bond vehicles parading along The Mall through an array of over 200 silk flags, decorated with images drawn by children, as a 'River of Hope'.[20][19] Actors, singers, presenters and sports stars rode on open-top buses.[151] The Queen and her heirs appeared on the balcony of the Buckingham Palace for the finale of the pageant, and she later thanked everyone for their "good wishes" in a statement.[152] The 2022 Thank You Day was also held, so people could thank the Queen, and their communities.[153] 4.7 million people took part in organising jubilee events, while about 8.7 million attended a Thank You Day event and 3.3 million helped to organise one.[154]

A platinum jubilee Corgi Derby took place at Musselburgh Racecourse in Scotland with a number of the Queen's favourite dogs take part in a novelty race in front of the crowd.[155]

Displays and exhibitions
There were special displays and exhibitions at the official royal residences, including Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, and the Palace of Holyroodhouse.[156] The Queen's portraits, jewellery and tiaras, and carriages were on display at Buckingham Palace from 22 July to 8 September.[157] At Windsor Castle, the Queen's coronation robe was shown to visitors from 7 July to 8 September.[158] The Palace of Holyroodhouse displayed the outfits worn by the Queen for her silver, golden, and diamond jubilees from 3 July to 8 September.[159]

Balmoral Castle hosted the exhibition Life at Balmoral, which opened on 1 April and ran until 2 August. Set in the ballroom of Balmoral Castle, the exhibition had a collection of the Queen's clothing, including kilts, coats, hats and dresses.[160][161]

At St Paul's Cathedral, there was a special exhibition from 25 May 2022 to 7 January 2023, titled Jubilee: St. Paul's, The Monarch and the Changing World, which explored the jubilees of four British monarchs: George III, Victoria, George V and Elizabeth II.[162]

Between 28 May and 15 June, Sotheby's hosted the exhibition Power & Image: Royal & Aristocratic Tiaras that featured royal portraits, rare manuscripts, and tiaras,[163][164] including Queen Victoria's emerald and diamond tiara, which was given to her by Prince Albert, and the Spencer tiara, a family heirloom which was frequently worn by Diana, Princess of Wales.[165]

An exhibition was held at the Royal Mint Experience during the Bank Holiday weekend, which will explore the Queen's reign through coins.[166]

At the Imperial War Museum, London, the Queen's relationship with the Armed Forces was celebrated in an exhibition of photographs.[167]

The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead encouraged people to send photos of street parties or memorabilia of the Queen's past jubilees as part of an exhibition, titled 70 Years 70 Photos. They were displayed in libraries, ahead of the jubilee weekend.[168]

A garden was created in the moat to celebrate the jubilee on 30 May 2022.[169]
Historic Royal Palaces planned for a Commonwealth-themed garden in the historic moat of the Tower of London.[170] The display, titled Superbloom, was held from 1 June to 18 September. More than 20 million seeds were sown in spring 2022.[171] The Commonwealth of Nations Globe, a platinum, diamond, gold and silver blue globe set within a silver crown on a blue and gold cushion, was unveiled at the Tower of London. The piece was sent to the site accompanied by a 70-piece military band and was featured during the beacon-lighting ceremony in June.[172]

Titled Art Save The Queen, portraits of the Queen by artists ranging from graffitist musician Goldie to ballpoint specialist James Mylne were exhibited at GALLERY@OXO on London's South Bank, from 2 to 12 June.[173]

Westminster Abbey roof were opened to public for the first time. Tours ran from June to August.[174]

Madame Tussauds, London, displayed seven replica ensembles of Queen's outfits, which have been worn by some of the 24 lifelike wax figures of the Queen made by Tussauds during her reign, for the platinum jubilee.[175] Waxwork figures of main royal family members also received a black tie makeover for the Jubilee.[176]

A portrait of the Queen by the humanoid robot Ai-Da, titled Algorithm Queen, was displayed in London on 27 May.[177]

From 1 to 29 June, fifty life-sized corgi sculptures were displayed in the windows and foyers of shops and businesses in Altrincham. Called Trooping the Corgis, the project featured mannequins hand-decorated by artists and children.[178]

To mark the jubilee, the Royal Academy of Arts presented the Queen with the Platinum Jubilee Gift, a collection of works of art on paper by 20 recently elected academicians. They will be displayed at the Queen's Gallery, Buckingham Palace, between 12 January and 26 February 2023.[179]

Other tributes and events

Platinum Jubilee medals
A platinum jubilee medal is being awarded to people who work in public service, including members of the Armed Forces, emergency services, and the prison services.[42]

As part of the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours, the Queen gave several settlements city status. 39 places applied in the competition.[180] In May, it was announced that the eight places that will be awarded city status were: Bangor in Northern Ireland; Colchester, Doncaster and Milton Keynes in England; Dunfermline in Scotland; Wrexham in Wales; Douglas in the Isle of Man; and Stanley in the Falkland Islands. The city of Southampton won the lord mayor title.[181] Six historic sites visited by Queen were given listed status: All Saints' Church in Shard End, Birmingham; The Queen's Theatre in Hornchurch, London; Art Deco Sun Pavilion and Colonnade in Harrogate, North Yorkshire; Hampshire Archives in Winchester; Imperial Hotel in Stroud, Gloucestershire; and commemorative motorway markers on the M62, running through Yorkshire and Lancashire.[182]

The Royal Collection Trust published a collection of 77 photographs under the title The Queen: 70 Glorious Years as an official souvenir publication.[183] It also produced bottles of wine, labelled English Sparkling Wine: Platinum Jubilee Release and made using Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Pinot Meunier grapes grown in Kent and West Sussex.[184] In April, Heinz announced the production of limited-edition bottles of two of its favourite condiments, HP Sauce and Salad Cream, which were rebranded HM Sauce and Heinz Salad Queen respectively.[185] Jubilee-themed food items were also released by other brands, including the Coronation Chicken Tower Burger by KFC, Clarence The Corgi Cake by Morrisons, the Crown Crust Pizza by Pizza Hut, Union Jack Mochi Donuts by Japan Centre, Coronation Tikka Sub by Subway, and three limited edition pizzas by Franco Manca.[186]

34027 Taw Valley painted purple

Blackpool Tramway tram in Platinum Jubilee livery

One of eight TfL Platinum Jubilee buses
Eight London buses on royal routes, passing Kensington Palace and Westminster Abbey, have been given commemorative purple wraps. Celebratory messages were played on the Jubilee Line, the new Elizabeth line and at stations that have a royal link in their name, like Queen's Road.[187] Reading Buses also unveiled a special Jubilee bus, that will be used in Reading, Windsor and London throughout the year.[188] The Severn Valley Railway repainted the steam engine 34027 Taw Valley in purple, and temporarily renamed it "Elizabeth II". The new name was chosen by public vote. The engine will be returned to its traditional green after few months.[189][190]

Primary school children in England and Northern Ireland received a free book, titled Queen Elizabeth: A Platinum Jubilee Celebration (with schools in the devolved countries of Wales and Scotland having to 'opt-in' to the programme).[191][192] DK Books UK was commissioned by the British Government to publish the book, which was designed to celebrate the people, places, achievements of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth over the last 70 years. The book also explores the role of the Queen and what the Platinum Jubilee represents.[193]

In Northern Ireland, a design competition was held for primary school children to create a "snapshot of Northern Ireland". The winning entry, designed by Emily McMullan from Dundonald Primary School, was manufactured into a rug by Northern Ireland company Ulster Carpets, and later sent to the Queen.[194][195] In addition, the Queen and other members of the Royal Family received Northern Ireland Platinum Jubilee Hampers, showcasing more than fifty products from food and drink producers across Northern Ireland.[114][196]

Starting on 18 January, GB News, a TV news broadcaster, announced that it would be playing the national anthem at 5:59 every morning before programmes commenced.[197][198][199]

In March, the Duchess of Cornwall, who is president of the Royal Voluntary Service, launched the organisation's Platinum Champions Awards to honour 70 volunteers nominated by the public for their efforts in improving lives in their communities.[200] The Prince of Wales and the Duchess penned the foreword to The Platinum Jubilee Cookbook, which was released in April.[201] They also appeared in a special episode of the British soap opera EastEnders.[202] The Prince's Foundation organised tea dances for people suffering from loneliness and isolation.[203]

In its April issue, British Vogue featured the Queen on its cover for the first time.[204] Harper's Bazaar held a fashion shoot around the Tower of London, featuring designs by Victoria Beckham, Richard Quinn and Sarah Burton that were inspired by the Queen.[205] Hello! commissioned a portrait by Ben Mosley.[206] A portrait of the Queen was unveiled by Rob Munday. Titled Platinum Queen: Felicity, it was taken by Munday in 2004 during a session to create the first officially commissioned 3D hologram of the Queen.[207] Tatler commissioned a new portrait of the Queen by Nigerian artist Oluwole Omofemi, for a special edition of Tatler magazine. Omofemi painted the Queen with black hair, which according to him represents the "power of the woman". He said, "when I look at her, I see someone who has conquered life".[208][209]

Women's Institute members knitted toy corgis and hid them across the United Kingdom. One contained a pair of free tickets to the Big Jubilee Lunch in London during the Jubilee weekend.[210] The Elephant Family commissioned seven giant egg-shaped artefacts, each representing a decade of the Queen's reign. They were displayed across the Cadogan Estate in Chelsea as a part of the Eggs of an Era exhibition from 16 May to 12 June to raise awareness about poaching and collectability of wild birds' eggs.[211]

In March, a baby rhinoceros, born at Cotswold Wildlife Park in Burford, Oxfordshire, was christened "Queenie".[212] In May, five Humboldt penguin chicks at London Zoo were named after famous people and events from the past 70 years. The names included Hillary, Apollo, Bobby, Bernie and Mac, after mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary, Apollo 11 Moon landing, footballer Bobby Moore, computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee, and sailor Dame Ellen MacArthur.[213]

The BBC and The Reading Agency announced in April the Big Jubilee Read, a list of 70 books by Commonwealth authors, ten from each decade of the Queen's reign.[214] Sir Michael Morpurgo released a new book There Once Is A Queen.[215] For the Jubilee, Poet Laureate Simon Armitage wrote "Queenhood". It was published in The Times on 3 June[216] and as a signed limited-edition pamphlet sold through commercial outlets (ISBN 9780571379606).

The Choir of the Earth invited people from around the world to learn and record a new arrangement of "God Save the Queen", which was presented to the Queen.[217]

Virgin Records announced plans to re-release the Sex Pistols' 1977 single "God Save the Queen".[218]

A Platinum Jubilee postbox topper at Bury St. Edmunds, England
Across England, Jubilee-themed woolly postbox toppers appeared in towns and villages.[219] St Mary's Church in Somerset has been covered in more than 2,000 textile flowers for the occasion. The flowers were knitted, crocheted and sewn by volunteers.[220]

In May, at Ely Cathedral in Cambridgeshire, the Princess Royal officially unveiled a table made from a 5,000-year-old oak tree. The 13-metre (43 ft) table was created from a black oak, that was found buried and preserved in a farmland at Methwold Hythe, near Downham Market, in 2012. Specialists spent 10 years crafting the piece.[221]

In Weymouth, David Hicks carved a tribute in sand at a visitor attraction. It depicted the Queen on a commemorative 50p coin, and took 10 days to complete.[222] In Barnsley town centre, a 20-tonne royal-themed sand sculpture is being created.[223]

In May, the London Eye opened a Platinum Jubilee time capsule pod that ran until 4 September. Decorated with memorabilia, 1950s furnishings, as well as photographs of the Queen at every stage of her 70-year reign, it also served the Queen's favourite drinks.[224] Portraits of the Queen from throughout her reign were projected onto Stonehenge and Marble Arch.[225] The Jubilee was also marked at the Legoland Windsor Resort, where a pageant down The Mall in miniature and a picnic scene at Windsor Castle were created.[226]

The Herefordshire village of Wellington created 104 royal-themed scarecrows.[227] The Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths and the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic each commissioned brooches to be gifted to the Queen to mark the occasion.[228][229]

The Platinum Jubilee Village Hall Improvement Grant Fund was launched in May by the UK government, to provide grant funding over three years to support capital improvement projects for village halls, such as installing Wi-Fi, extending buildings and modernising facilities.[230]

South Gloucestershire Council has suggested that the Severn Bridge be renamed in honour of the platinum jubilee.[231] A newly constructed railway bridge near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire, was named Ocean Jubilee Bridge.[232]

A life-size bronze sculpture depicting the Queen in the uniform of the Grenadier Guards on her horse Burmese was unveiled at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst by the Earl of Wessex and Forfar on 27 May.[233][234] A statue of the Queen was posthumously unveiled by King Charles III at York Minster on 9 November. The 2-metre (6.6 ft) statue weighs approximately two tonnes.[235]

In June, Cabinet ministers gave the Queen a music box that plays Handel's Hallelujah. The small, hand-painted box, finished with a platinum mount, features an illustration of No. 10 on the lid and miniature portraits of all fourteen of her prime ministers around the sides from Winston Churchill to Boris Johnson. The portraits are surrounded by the same shade of yellow found on the walls of the staircase at No. 10, which feature pictures of all the British prime ministers.[236]

In August, the Princess Royal attended the Solent Platinum Jubilee event, a showcase by the Solent's sailing and yachting community which featured over 400 boats.[237]

At the Princess Royal & Duke of Fife Memorial Park, in Braemar, a new archway was built to commemorate the Queen's Platinum Jubilee.[238] On 3 September, the Duke and Duchess of Rothesay unveiled the structure to celebrate the Braemar Royal Highland Gathering.[239]

The Queen also gave her blessing to female members of the royal family to take part in Good Housekeeping's Christmas 2022 and New Year 2023 issue to mark her Platinum Jubilee and the 100th anniversary of the magazine's publication in the UK.[240]

Bench commemorating the Platinum Jubilee in Mattishall, Norfolk.
In December 2022, King Charles III unveiled the Platinum Jubilee gift, a pair of bronze sculpted lamps located between the Diamond Jubilee window in Westminster Hall and the Silver Jubilee fountain in New Palace Yard.[241] The four nations of the United Kingdom are represented in the work in the form of heraldic beasts, including the Lion of England, the Unicorn of Scotland, the Dragon of Wales and the Irish Elk of Northern Ireland.[241] The lanterns themselves resemble St Edward's Crown.[241]

Crown Dependencies
Guernsey
A set of stamps was released by Guernsey Post on 4 February 2022. In each stamp, the Queen is wearing Queen Victoria's golden jubilee necklace, which is said to be one of her favourite pieces of jewellery.[242][243] Coins commemorating the Jubilee were also released.[244][245]

At Sausmarez Manor, on 22 February, more than 70 Girlguides and their families planted 70 trees.[246][247]

There was a four-day bank holiday in Guernsey from 2 to 5 June.[248][249]

Celebrations in Guernsey commenced at Castle Cornet on 2 June, with the grounds being open all day for people to enjoy for free.[250] At noon, a 21-gun salute was fired by the castle's cannons.[251] The Guernsey Yacht Club organised a Sail Past at Castle Cornet. In the evening, the lighting of a beacon at Castle Cornet took place.[251]

On 4 June, a community fete was held in the grounds of Government House, with family entertainment, children's activities, and music, including performances from Belles and Broomstick, Kirsty and George, The Wright Singers and GATE. In the evening, the Guernsey Concert Band performed music from Baroque to Big Band, including performance by singer Poppy Neame, the granddaughter of Lieutenant General Sir Philip Neame who served as Governor of Guernsey from 1945 to 1952.[250]

On 5 June, Guernsey Arts held a Platinum Jubilee Celebration Seafront Sunday in St Peter Port.[250]

Each parish will be invited to plant a display, to win a Platinum Jubilee Floral Guernsey Discretionary Award.[249] Schools will plant "a tree for every class" and a commemorative 50p coin will be presented to every full-time student.[252][248]

Events also took place in Alderney during the weekend. On 2 June, the day started with a party on the Butes and end with the lighting of a beacon. A Gala Dinner took place on the evening of 3 June at the Braye Beach Hotel. On 4 June, a Saturday fete was held at Frette Farm by The Blonde Hedgehog. On 5 June, there was a Churches Together Service at St Anne's Church, followed by a parade. All of the island's restaurants served Jubilee-themed Sunday lunches.[253][254] A competition to find the best decorated houses and gardens will take place and sports clubs will be competing for Jubilee Trophies.[255]

Guernsey platinum jubilee flag

The Guernsey Platinum Jubilee Flag
The Committee for Education, Sport & Culture launched a competition for islanders to design a jubilee flag. More than 400 entries were sent.[256] The winning design, by Ben Le Marchant, is based on a 1953 Coronation postage stamp with a wave pattern based on the sea as a connection to Guernsey.[256] The colours red and yellow are taken from the Guernsey flag, and the purple and white represent the colours of the Platinum Jubilee emblem.[256] The Weighbridge Mast will fly the flag over the summer.[248][249] A replica of the winning flag was sent to the Queen along with Guernsey's official Jubilee message.[252][256][257]

Six designs were also chosen as runners-up and will feature on a set of Guernsey platinum jubilee postcards.[258]

Jersey
Commemorative coins were issued in Jersey,[259] with a stamp issued on 1 June.[260] The stamp features a photograph taken by Dorothy Wilding in 1952, it is printed with several "special ink effects", including using an iridescent ink which gives the Queen's dress, crown and necklace a "subtle sparkle".[261]

On Accession Day, the bailiff of Jersey sent a congratulatory message to the Queen. Church across Jersey marked the occasion by ringing bells at noon for 15 minutes.[262][263]

On 1 June, a 21-gun salute was fired from the Jersey Militia, and a reception held at Government House. On 2 June, the Queen's Platinum Jubilee Beacons were lit at Glacis Field, in front of a crowd of 5,000 people. On 3 June, the Jersey International Motoring Festival Pageant included a formal march by representatives from all uniformed organisations in Jersey. On 5 June, a service was held at the Town Church, led by Mike Keirle, Dean of Jersey. High tea on the high street and a race at Les Landes race course also took place.[260][264]

Islanders were invited to enjoy a picnic at Elizabeth Castle.[265]

Isle of Man
The Isle of Man Post Office released a new stamp collection on 6 February to mark the jubilee. Each of the eight commemorative stamps feature a picture of the Queen, who holds the title Lord of Mann, along with words from "God Save the Queen".[266][267]

At an event organised by the Douglas Borough Council, 70 trees were planted by schoolchildren next to a new cycleway at Spring Valley alongside the edge of Douglas Golf Course. Trees species found on the grounds of Buckingham Palace were chosen, and include silver birch, flowered wild cherry, English oak, and small leaved lime trees.[268][269]

The Manx Government has created a Platinum Jubilee Event Fund that provides up to £5,000 grant to help fund community-based projects and celebrations organised by the local authorities, non-profit making community/voluntary groups and local charities, in honour of the jubilee.[270]

In April 2022, a set of five commemorative 50p coins was released. The set outlines the Queen's role as Lord of Mann, and depicts royal beasts alongside words from God Save the Queen. The Treasury also released a sovereign in gold and silver, marking the 70 years in Roman Numerals, and a crown coin.[271]

Douglas, the capital of the Isle of Man, was granted city status. Chief Minister Alfred Cannan said it was "a huge honour for the island" that celebrates its "unique mix of culture, history and heritage".[272]

The Manx government gave the Queen a brooch in the shape of island, made there by Element Isle. The 'Infinity Isle of Man' brooch design outlines the Island with four gems (Blue Topaz, Citrine, Amethyst and Emerald) representing the towns of Ramsey, Peel, Castletown and the city of Douglas. The colours of the stones were selected to represent Manx tartan.[273]

There was a four-day bank holiday from 2 to 5 June.[274] On 2 June, beacons were lit at St Ninian's Church; Raglan Pier, Port Erin; Ballavell Farm, Ballasalla; Douglas Head, and Slieau Lhost. On 3 June, a street party took place at the Family Library, and a celebration by Arbory & Rushen Commissioners. A Service of Thanksgiving took place on 5 June, and Big Jubilee Lunches were held across the Island.[275]

On 25 June, Onchan District Commissioners will organise the "Party in the Park". The Douglas Jubilee Carnival will be held by the Douglas Borough Council on 23 July.[275]

British Overseas Territories
Bermuda
In November 2021, the governor of Bermuda hosted a ceremony at Government House, Bermuda, with 70 trees planted.[276]

In May 2022, a giant photograph of the Queen was placed on the Seon Place Building in Hamiton.[277]

On 2 June, the governor hosted the Queen's Birthday and platinum jubilee reception at Government House. On 3 June, the governor and the premier planted two trees to mark the Jubilee. On 4 June, the annual Queen's Birthday Parade took place along Front Street. The governor also presented representatives of the uniformed services with platinum jubilee medals. On 5 June, a service of thanksgiving was held at the Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity, Hamilton, and on 12 June, St. Peter's Church, St. George's, hosted a Service to mark the platinum jubilee and the tenth anniversary of the Intituling of St Peter's Church as "Their Majesties Chappell".[278]

British Antarctic Territory
A new 50p coin was released by the British Antarctic Territory to mark the jubilee. The coin features the Queen's royal cypher surrounded by a rose, representing England, a daffodil, representing Wales, a thistle, representing Scotland, and shamrocks, representing Northern Ireland. The design also incorporates the jubilee emblem.[279]

Postage stamps commemorating the jubilee were released on 24 March.[280]

British Virgin Islands
Beacon lighting and community events were held in the British Virgin Islands on 2 June.[281]

Cayman Islands
Caymanian celebrations began with the opening of a commemorative exhibition by the Cayman Islands National Museum on 5 February.[282][283]

On Accession Day, the governor and the premier of Cayman Islands released statements.[282][283] On the same day, a special sitting was held at the House of Parliament.[284] The governor read a special proclamation, and speeches were given by the speaker of the parliament, premier and the leader of the opposition.[282][283] A 70 seconds of moment of silence was observed across the Cayman Islands at 12:15 pm to mark seventy years since the passing of King George VI. During this time, radio stations remained silent and bells were rung in many churches.[285][286]

A commemorative exhibit began on Commonwealth Day and will continue until the end of June in the foyer of the House of Parliament. The exhibition features historical photographs of the Queen's visits to the Cayman Islands, as well as royal memorabilia and Postal Service royal stamp issues.[287]

The Cayman Platinum Cake Competition was launched on 1 March.[288] Nine finalists were invited to Government House on 28 April for a taste test by judges Lori-Ann Foley, Brittani Seymour, Elizabeth Larsen and Mark Lea. The winning recipe by Anne Frawley is called the "Cayman Sunrise Cake", which is adapted to include flavours and ingredients native to the Cayman Islands. The cake was served at the Queen's Birthday Party on 6 June.[289]

A competition was launched by the Ministry of Youth, Sports, Culture & Heritage to find a song or a jingle that "exemplifies the celebration of 70 years of the Queen's reign". The competition is open to national songwriters, vocal recording artists and composers until 3 June. The winning three best entries were announced on 11 June at the DART Park Amphitheatre.[287][290]

On 2 June, beacons were lit on the grounds of Pedro St. James, in Grand Cayman and at the Christopher Columbus Gardens in Cayman Brac. An outdoor concert showcased performances from the National Choir and the National Orchestra in Grand Cayman, while musical performances took place in the Brac.[282][283] On 3 June, a live music concert took place in downtown George Town. Throughout the weekend, trees were planted across the Cayman Islands as part of The Queen's Green Canopy.[282][283] On 5 June, a Service of Thanksgiving took place at Elmslie Memorial Church. On the same day, a children's tea party was held at the Queen Elizabeth II Botanical Park.[282] On 6 June, Caymanians celebrated with the traditional parade and garden party at Government House, Cayman Islands. An evening fireworks display also took place along Seven Mile Beach.[282][283]

An international air show will be held in Grand Cayman.[291][292]

Falkland Islands
Commemorative stamps were released by the Falkland Islands on 24 March.[293]

Stanley, the capital of the Falkland Islands, was granted city status. The islands' government said it was "over the moon" and would be "partying with the penguins".[294]

There were public holidays on 2 and 3 June. On 1 June, a reception was held at the Town Hall. On 2 June, frontline serving members of the Royal Falkland Islands Police, Falklands Fire & Rescue, Falkland Islands Defence Force, and other emergency services were awarded commemorative platinum jubilee medals at Government House. Beacon lighting took place at Moody Brook and Government House. On 3 June, a church service was held at Christ Church Cathedral. On 4 June, community events and celebrations took place at the Town Hall. On 5 June, a cake competition was held at the Town Hall.[295][296]

Gibraltar
On Accession Day, the Governor and the Chief Minister of Gibraltar issued statements and paid tribute to the Queen.[297] The Union Flag was flown from the Moorish Castle throughout the day.[297][298] On 7 February, a gun salute was fired by the Royal Gibraltar Regiment from Grand Battery.[299]

On 25 April, Gibraltar issued a set of commemorative stamps.[300]

As in the UK, there was a double bank holiday on 2 and 3 June.[301] On 2 June, a food festival Jubilita took place at the three of Gibraltar's City Squares – the Theatre Royal Square, John Mackintosh Square and Campion Park. Jubilita offered a historical trail through the Queen's reign, with dishes from different eras.[302] On 4 June, a street party was held at Governor's Parade.[303]

Gibraltar National Archives organized a jubilee exhibition at Gustavo Bacarisas Gallery from 7 June to 27 July.[303]

Montserrat
In Montserrat, celebrations began in the middle of May with radio quizzes. Medal ceremonies took place between 13 and 30 May to honour uniformed personnel who had served 5 or more years within the Royal Montserrat Defence Force, Royal Police Service, Her Majesty's Prison and The Montserrat Fire and Rescue Services.[304]

There were public holidays on 2 and 3 June.[305] At Little Bay, a beacon lighting ceremony took place on 2 June, with an outdoor concert. On 3 June, a ceremonial parade took place at Salem Park, followed by the Queen's Birthday Party on 4 June.[304] Tree planting ceremonies will take place across Montserrat.[304] Other activities include poetry and art competitions for children and social activities for various age categories.[304]

Pitcairn Islands
In Pitcairn Islands, the smallest British overseas territory with no more than 50 permanent inhabitants, a jubilee dinner was held on 2 June. The territory was also the last to light a jubilee beacon.[306]

Turks and Caicos Islands
Governor Nigel Dakin approved an extra holiday on 6 June, throughout the Turks and Caicos Islands. In addition, the Queen's Birthday public holiday was observed on June 3, rather than the usual 13 June, to create a four-day weekend celebration as a tribute to the Queen's reign.[307]

Planned celebrations include events in Grand Turk, a tree planting ceremony, a beacon lighting ceremony and the Queen's Birthday Parade.[307]

Platinum jubilee medals will be awarded to public servants for their service over the years, as well as to the persons for 18, 25 and 30 years of service to the Crown.[307]

Canada
The Platinum Jubilee of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II[308] is the first time in Canada's history that a Canadian monarch celebrates 70 years on the throne.[309]

Planning
A series of initiatives have been organised by the federal government.[310] On 11 June 2021, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau had a virtual audience with the Queen, wherein they discussed preparations for Canadian celebrations.[311][312] Provincial governments also started planning for the Jubilee in 2021,[313] as did private organisations, like the Canadian branch of Rotary Club.[310]

An emblem for the jubilee was created by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin, the Fraser Herald of Arms, and registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority in December 2021.[314][315] A platinum jubilee flag that features the emblem on a white background was also created and is being flown at government houses and events throughout the jubilee year.[316] The federal government also created lapel pins using the jubilee emblem, and distributed them to all parliamentarians, so they could award them to Canadians who greatly contributed to their communities.[317] Platinum Jubilee lapel pins were also distributed across the country by the Monarchist League of Canada.[318]

The Department of Canadian Heritage created a program that provides up to C$5,000 grant to help fund community-based projects and celebrations,[310][319] as well as permitting larger initiatives to apply for the Commemorate Canada grant, as the jubilee was considered an anniversary of significance for the country.[320] Through the Queen Elizabeth II's Platinum Jubilee Fund, Canadian Heritage invested C$2.14 million to support celebrations in 360 local communities and three national projects. Approved projects include artistic performances and exhibitions, educational programs, garden and tea parties, geocaching programs, military parades, summer reading programs, and tree-planting events.[321] Funded initiatives aim to educate Canadians about the role of the Canadian Crown and celebrate Canadian achievements over the past seven decades.[322]

The Platinum Jubilee was the first publicly celebrated jubilee in which the Canadian government didn't issue a jubilee medal. Responding to queries about the medal, Canadian Heritage noted the decision to not issue a medal was "an approach consistent with that adopted by almost all Commonwealth realms".[323] However, the decision was criticised by the Royal Canadian Legion and the Monarchist League of Canada, the latter also criticising the scale of the federal government's planning for the event.[324][325] Several provincial governments instituted their own Jubilee medals, with Alberta and Saskatchewan issuing 7,000 medals each;[326][327] Nova Scotia issuing 5,000 medals;[328] Manitoba issuing 1,000 medals;[329] New Brunswick issuing 3000 medals;[330] and Prince Edward Island issuing 584 medals.[331] The same legislative act that authorized Alberta's Platinum Jubilee medals also replaced awards created for the Queen's Golden Jubilee in 2002, with platinum jubilee equivalents and increased their monetary prizes.[326] The government of Ontario stated it would celebrate the anniversary through the province's existing honours and medals, as well as issuing commemorative Platinum Jubilee lapel pins.[332] The government of Manitoba provided grant funding with a focus on reconciliation to Manitoba's six Royally-designated organizations[n 2] to facilitate jubilee initiatives throughout the year.[333]

Accession Day events in Canada
Celebrations were launched by the Department of Canadian Heritage on 6 February,[21][320] as the government encouraged Canadians across the country to celebrate the jubilee in "their own unique ways".[334] On the same day, Governor General Mary Simon, lieutenant governors, Prime Minister Trudeau, all issued statements congratulating the Queen,[343] as did the provincial premiers,[349] and the Speaker of the Senate of Canada.[350] The Governor General said:

Much has changed in the last seven decades. We extended the hand of friendship to nations around the world. We made advancements in medical research, most recently with vaccines. We established the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and took part in its work. We saw the first Canadian named governor general, then the first woman, and now, the first indigenous person.[351]

Flag raising ceremonies for the Canadian royal standard and the platinum jubilee flag occurred at Rideau Hall and several provincial legislatures and government houses.[359] Evensong services were also held in a variety of churches of the Diocese of British Columbia and the Anglican Diocese of Toronto, with the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario attending a service in Cathedral Church of St James in Toronto.[364]

Tributes across the country

Canadian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom, Ralph Goodale, said that the Platinum Jubilee lapel pin (pictured) is a "very dignified, high-quality piece that is intended to reach a large number of Canadians, not just a few that might be on a medals list", as "the idea was to reach further".[365]
The Royal Canadian Mint released a series of coins, including the two-coin jubilee set,[21] a one-ounce platinum coin,[366] a double-portrait proof silver dollar,[367] and coins depicting the Queen's Diamond Diadem.[368][369] Canada Post issued a commemorative stamp, which features a profile of the Queen by Arnold Machin.[370]

In the realms of arts and letters, the Royal Canadian Geographical Society and Canadian Geographic magazine created a series of commemorative pieces for the jubilee, the first of which were released on 6 February.[371] The magazine also launched its own platinum jubilee website, and through its education wing, launched "The Queen's Jubilee Classroom Challenge", which ran from 1 April to 31 May 2022 and encouraged students to "head out into their own communities to discover and learn about native plants", drawing inspiration from The Queen's Commonwealth Canopy and The Queen's Green Canopy.[372] The Lieutenant Governor's BC Journalism Fellowship and the Lieutenant Governor's Art and Music Award were launched by the Queen's representative in British Columbia.[373][374]

In May, it was announced that the year's Royal St John's Regatta would be renamed Platinum Jubilee Royal St John's Regatta,[375] and the event took place at Quidi Vidi Lake on 4 August.[376][377] On 13 May, a battery of the 1st Regiment of the Royal Canadian Horse Artillery was also renamed The Queen's Battery.[378] Special call-sign prefixes for the jubilee were approved by Innovation, Science, and Economic Development Canada for use by amateur radio operators from 15 May to 14 July.[379] The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation produced a documentary, The Queen and Canada, airing on 4 June on CBC News Network.[321]

The Platinum Jubilee Garden planted in Queen's Park in Toronto, Ontario

The plaque for the Platinum Jubilee Garden at Government House in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island
Lieutenant governors and commissioners across Canada dedicated special gardens in their respective provinces or territory.[21] Each of the 13 gardens included plants suited to the local climate, including tobacco, where climate and protocols allowed, providing the gardens with a representation of the relationship between the Canadian Crown and indigenous peoples of Canada through the treaties. Tobacco seeds were provided to viceregal offices and commissioners from plants grown for the Chapel Royal at Massey College. Another garden to represent the Crown's association with indigenous Canadians was unveiled at Mount Pleasant Nature Park in the County of Brant on 4 June.[380]

The Prince Edward Island Crown-in-Council established a tree planting initiative to create a legacy for the jubilee by adding a stream to its Greening Spaces Program and,[381] from Earth Day to 7 June, the town of Saint Andrews, New Brunswick, planted 70 trees.[382] In May, members of the Royal Canadian Air Cadets also planted trees as a part of the Queen's Green Canopy project.[321]

A commemorative plaster sculpture honouring the Queen's 70-year reign was put on display in the Senate of Canada Building. When Centre Block is fully restored, a final stone version of the sculpture will eventually cap the main arch above Centre Block's Senate foyer, near the Diamond Jubilee Window created in 2010.[383]

Events from February to May
Several government houses organised jubilee events throughout the year.[373][384] An exhibition was mounted at the Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan's official residence in Regina; titled Platinum on the Prairie: The Queen in Saskatchewan, which focused on the Queen's connection to the province. The portrait of the Queen that was commissioned for the diamond jubilee in 2012 also went on display at Government House in Saskatchewan.[384][385] On 14 March, a time capsule was buried at Government House, British Columbia, which contains messages of hope for the future from viceroys and commissioners across Canada and is scheduled to be opened in 2072.[386] The Alberta Legislature Building hosted on-site tours and displays for the jubilee.[387]

An exhibit was unveiled on 2 March at the Canadian Museum of Nature, featuring a display of Canadian currency, postage stamps, and specimens of platinum.[388][389] Woodstock Museum in Woodstock, Ontario, held several jubilee-themed programs from April to June[390] and the Toronto Railway Museum hosted on 19 May an online lecture on Canadian royal trains used during the Queen's reign.[391] Similarly, the Nova Scotia Archives launched a dedicated online collection of material related to the Queen's various tours of the province.[392] As part of Winterlude in February, an ice sculpture was unveiled on Sparks Street,[393] the main pedestrian mall in Ottawa, and, in the same vein, the city's ByWard Market was decorated in purple.[310] In spring, Ottawa's Confederation Boulevard, as well as several places in provinces and territories, were decorated with banners featuring the jubilee colours.[21] Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and Governor General Mary Simon were received in the audience by the Queen at Windsor Castle on 7 and 15 March respectively, where they both offered their congratulations to the Queen for reaching the milestone.[394][395][396] At Canada House in London, a jubilee-themed window display was unveiled in April, featuring pictures from throughout the Queen's reign demonstrating her relationship with Canada.[397]

On 9 April, the town of Melfort, Saskatchewan, held a high tea and, later,[398] in Ontario, the Durham Chamber Orchestra performed a concert in Ajax, on 15 May,[399] followed by a jubilee weekend in Amherstburg, held between the 20th and 21st of the same month, and attended by the province's Lieutenant Governor.[400] Back in Ottawa, a corgi parade took place on 22 May.[321]

Four days later, the Strathcona Ceremonial Mounted Troop were part of celebrations held in Armstrong, British Columbia; an event that was organized by the Armstrong Regional Co-op, the Canadian Armed Forces, and the Okanagan Military Tattoo Society.[401] The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (of which the Queen is Commissioner-in-Chief) sent its Musical Ride to partake in the special Royal Windsor Horse Show, Platinum Jubilee Celebration: A Gallop Through History, at Windsor Castle on 15 May.[402] RCMP officers greeted the Queen upon her arrival at the showground and performed other ceremonial duties riding the horses the force had given to the Queen.[402][403]

Ahead of their jubilee tour of Canada, the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall visited Canada House in London on 12 May. The couple met members of the Canadian diaspora and watched a small performance.[404] Canadian High Commissioner Ralph Goodale said that the Crown and Canada have a "very egalitarian" relationship. He said it is not about empire, but Commonwealth, and the relationship "constantly reviews itself in modern terms, and that is the secret of its longevity".[405]

Commemorations throughout summer
External videos
video icon Northern Lights - sound and light show – Summer 2022 Source: Canadian Heritage.
A new segment specifically about the Queen's 70 years of service to Canada was added to the annual Northern Lights sound and light show that runs from June to September on Parliament Hill, including images of the Queen's tours of Canada displayed through dynamic animation.[21][406] A Canadian Heritage outdoor exhibition, The Queen and Canada, is being presented from August to October at the Château Laurier hotel and features images of the Queen in Canada arranged along the hotel's promenade that faces the Rideau Canal.[21][407] Prior to the lighting of The Queen's Platinum Jubilee Beacon in Ottawa, on the evening of 2 June (the 69th anniversary of Elizabeth II's coronation), a specially-scripted proclamation was read by town criers in multiple cities across Canada.[310] In the evening, bagpipers across the country played the bugle calls "Diu Regnare" and "Majesty" and major federal and provincial buildings throughout the country were illuminated purple.[21] A beacon was also lit on top of Canada House in London in the presence of Governor-General Mary Simon.[408] In a statement, Simon encouraged Canadians across the country to work together to "truly honour the life, legacy and reign of Her Majesty The Queen".[409] Twelve Canadian Armed Forces members representing the forces' three elements took part in the Platinum Jubilee Pageant in London on 5 June, along with military personnel from other Commonwealth countries.[410]

In Aurora, Ontario, a commemorative bench was installed at Queen's Diamond Jubilee Park on 2 June, with a celebration taking place two days later, when seven images—one for each decade of the Queen's reign—were put on display and one of the town's Concerts in the Park series was dedicated to the jubilee as a musical tribute.[411] The town also set up a website with educational resources and entertainments.[412] "Majestic Celebrations: 70 Hats for 70 Years", a millinery exhibit, was held at the Burlington Central Library between 2 and 5 June.[413] In Toronto, the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario hosted a platinum jubilee garden party on 5 June at the Aga Khan Museum[414] and garden lunch and tea events took place on 4 and 5 June, as well as in Sarnia.[415][416] The Royal Commonwealth Society of Toronto hosted a gala at the Fairmont Royal York on 17 June.[417] The City of Toronto planted 70 large trees, one for each year of the Queen's reign, throughout Rowntree Mills Park, with the tree planting being attended by Mayor John Tory and Lieutenant Governor Elizabeth Dowdeswell.[418]

The New Brunswick Legislative Building

Markham Civic Centre
Buildings and landmarks in Canada illuminated in purple on 2 June
In Alberta, between 3 and 4 June, provincial museums and historic sites offered free admission and, on the second day, the Lieutenant Governor hosted a garden party on the grounds of Government House in Edmonton.[419][420][421] Innisfail saw on 2 June the Royal Canadian Legion Pipe Band play and, two days later, at Ol' Moose Hall, the Innisfail and District Historical Society hosted the Queen's Platinum Jubilee Tea, which also honoured the Women's Institute, a community-based organization for women in the UK, Canada, South Africa, and New Zealand.[422]

An exhibit on the Queen's visits to Newfoundland and Labrador was curated by The Rooms and mounted at Government House, St John's,[423] where an open house was held on 3 June.[424][425] The Lieutenant Governor attended a tea party in the town of Placentia on 6 June.[426][427] A tree planting ceremony was held on 5 June in Centennial Park in Saint Andrews, New Brunswick, followed by a community church service at All Saints Church on King Street and a community garden party in front of the Anglican Parish Hall.[428][429] In Fredericton, several events were held from 2 to 9 June, including a tree planting, a flag raising ceremony, and a concert on 16 June, in front of City Hall,[430] which was lit in purple from 2 to 5 June.[431] The Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia hosted platinum jubilee garden parties in Yarmouth on 16 July and in Cape Breton on 30 July.[432][433] On 23 July, a platinum jubilee concert, featuring the Stadacona Band of the Royal Canadian Navy, was held at Government House in Halifax.[434] On 1 July, a "double platinum" themed Canada Day celebration was held in Pugwash to commemorate both the platinum jubilees for both the Queen and the local Gathering of the Clans.[435]

On 4 June, two refurbished British cannons, dating from 1810, were fired for a total of five times by the Westmount Battery, in Montreal's Mount Royal Cemetery, near Côte-des-Neiges Armoury. The last time they had been fired publicly was in 1897, for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria.[436] A collection of memorabilia was displayed at Atwater Library and the proprietors of Clarence & Crisps shop in Hudson stated solar-powered, waving mini-statues of the Queen were the most popular item.[437] On 13 July, a celebration was held at Davies Park, Montreal West.[438] In a statement, the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec commended the Queen "for her many sacrifices and her selflessness".[439]

Government House, British Columbia, hosted Platinum Jubilee Music on the Lawn, an outdoor concert series, over three nights on 7 July, 14 July, and 21 July.[440][441] On 19 August, the Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia will host a Platinum Jubilee Festival at Government House.[442]

In Dawson City, a celebration was held at the local museum on 11 June.[443] Starting 7 July, Taylor House, Yukon, hosted jubilee Thursdays all through July and August to celebrate the Queen's jubilee.[444] On 13 August, the Commissioner of Yukon hosted a jubilee garden party at her residence in Dawson City. The next day, a celebration was held at the Keno City Mining Museum as part of the jubilee to mark the centennial of the visit of Governor General Lord Byng to the Keno region's silver mines.[444]

Australia
Queen Elizabeth II was the first Australian monarch to celebrate a platinum jubilee,[445] and a range of national and community events were held across the country.[446] "We plan to hold a range of events to coincide with key dates throughout 2022, to show our respect and appreciation for seven decades of service", said then Prime Minister Scott Morrison.[446]

The Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment also launched a tree planting initiative. The Australian Government will provide up to A$15.1 million of grant funding in 2022 to eligible groups and organisations for community-based tree planting events.[447][448][449]

Australians were able to submit a personal message of congratulations and thanks to the Queen on the Australian Government's Platinum Jubilee website from 2 to 16 June 2022. Messages were collated and sent to Buckingham Palace and archived by the Commonwealth of Australia.[450][451]

Accession Day events in Australia
On 6 February, buildings and monuments throughout Australia were lit in purple.[452] Statements were released by Morrison, Governor-General David Hurley and the governors of the Australian states.[453][454][455][456][457]

To mark the start of the platinum jubilee year, buildings across Australia were lit in royal purple.
Left to right: the High Court of Australia, the John Gorton Building, the National Library of Australia, the National Portrait Gallery, and the National Carillon.
Services were held in churches across Australia. In Canberra, evensong at St Paul's Church, Manuka was attended by the governor-general of Australia.[458][459] Several state governors also attended evensong services, including the governor of New South Wales at St James' Church, Sydney,[460][461] the governor of Tasmania at St David's Cathedral, Hobart,[462] the governor of Victoria at St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne,[463][464] the governor of Western Australia at St George's Cathedral, Perth,[465][466][467] and the governor of South Australia at St Paul's Anglican Church, Port Adelaide.[468] The latter event was also attended by the premier of South Australia.[469][470]

Memorabilia
Commemorative stamps and coins were released in Australia.[471]

On 5 April, two commemorative stamps were released by Australia Post: a $1.10 stamp featuring an image of the Queen from 1952 by Dorothy Wilding, and a $3.50 stamp which displays a 2019 photograph of the Queen. A range of collectables accompanied the stamp release.[472]

The Perth Mint released three celebratory coins on 5 April. The coins – two gold, and one silver – feature the shield of the royal coat of arms alongside the floral emblems of England, Ireland, Scotland and Australia on one side; and the Queen's first (1953) and current (2019) coin effigies on the other.[473]

The Royal Australian Mint released a commemorative 50c coin on 5 May. The coin depicts intertwining golden wattle branches, the national floral emblem of Australia; and the lily of the valley flowers, the Queen's favourite flower. The centre of the coin includes the Queen's royal cypher. Inspired by the 1977 Australian silver jubilee 50c coin, the platinum jubilee coin also features a fan of 70 crowns set behind a central St Edward's Crown.[474]

Commemorations in June

Buildings lit in Sydney for the jubilee, June 2022
The Queen's Platinum Jubilee was officially celebrated in Australia from 2 to 5 June 2022.[475] During this period, buildings and monuments throughout Australia were illuminated in purple to mark the occasion.[476]

On 2 June, the Blue Mountains Pipe Band played the tune Diu Regnare, written especially for the jubilee, in the Blue Mountains.[477] At Government House, Perth, the Governor of Western Australia dedicated a new garden to the Queen.[478] On the same day, a beacon was lit in Canberra, by Prime Minister Anthony Albanese. He later remarked that his birth was "somewhat potentially delayed" during the Queen's tour in 1963 because his "mother insisted on seeing the tribute to Queen Elizabeth on her way to the hospital, she insisted on going via the city to ensure she saw all of the commemorations at that time".[479][480]

Prime Minister Anthony Albanese lighting the jubilee beacon in Canberra
From 2 to 13 June, the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet Library hosted a display in the public foyer in the Andrew Fisher Building, featuring artifacts and contemporary items relating to the platinum jubilee.[481] The Bible Museum celebrated the jubilee from 2 to 17 June with a big display of commemorative royal Bibles, which included a special Bible published for the platinum jubilee.[482] From 2 June to 31 December, the National Capital Exhibition is presenting The Queen and Me, celebrating the Queen's 14 visits to Canberra during her 70-year reign. It will feature family photographs, and mementos of the day, and personal stories of what their interactions with the Queen have meant to the people of Canberra.[483]

On 3 June, the Administrator of the Northern Territory hosted Music on the Lawn: A Jubilee Event at Government House, which featured The Band of the 1st Brigade and Australian Army Band Sydney who performed a contemporary program of music.[484]

On 4 June, Aspen Island in Canberra's Lake Burley Griffin, an island lying within the Parliamentary Triangle and which features the National Carillon, was renamed Queen Elizabeth II Island during a special event.[485][486] The ceremony also included dedicating the new Queen Elizabeth Water Gardens, which transformed the nearby foreshore as well as improve water quality.[446][487] The event also included a 21-gun salute and RAAF flypast.[450][488] In a message, the Queen remarked that the renaming of the island was "a lovely and kind gesture", and hoped that "Queen Elizabeth II Island continues to provide a place of enjoyment for all who go there".[489]

Ceremony for the Aspen Island renaming ceremony on 4 June. The island was renamed Queen Elizabeth II Island in honour of the jubilee.
St Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney, hosted a concert 'Happy and Glorious' on 4 June, with royal music including Handel's Zadok the Priest, Parry's "I was glad", Walton's Orb and Sceptre Coronation march and works by Vaughan Williams, Byrd and Rutter, and the Australian premiere of the official platinum jubilee anthem, "In Our Service".[490][491] From 4 June to 13 June, Parliament House is hosting special tours featuring representations of the Queen in the Parliament House art collection, such as Sir William Dargie's Wattle Queen and John Dowie's bronze statue of Queen Elizabeth II on Queen's Terrace.[492]

On 5 June, a Service of Thanksgiving took place at St John's Anglican Cathedral, Brisbane, attended by the governor of Queensland.[493] Another service of thanksgiving was held at the Loch Public Hall.[494] The same day, Government House, Adelaide, opened for visitors to view public rooms, and see the workings of the House and view the statue of the Queen.[495]

41 members of the Australian Defence Force contingent from the Federation Guard took part in the Platinum Jubilee Pageant in London on 5 June.[26] Cheers of "Aussie Aussie Aussie" were heard as the Australian contingent marched by.[496] From 10 June to 30 December, the Australian Racing Museum, whose patron is the Queen, will present an online exhibition featuring a collection of objects, photographs and records held in the Museum Collection.[497] The Australian Army continued Platinum Jubilee celebrations in Canberra with Royal Military College – Duntroon's Queen's Birthday Parade on 11 June.[498] On 12 June, the Australian government announced a contribution of $10,000 to Wildlife SEQ Inc., in honour of the jubilee.[499] The same day, All Saints Anglican Church, South Hobart, celebrated the jubilee with a Festal Choral Evensong.[500] On 18 June, the Blackstone-Ipswich Cambrian Choir will host a concert at St Paul's Anglican Church, Ipswich, featuring music from the Queen's Coronation, such as Handel's Zadok the Priest and Parry's I was glad.[501]

Other events
On 3 February, the governor of Victoria hosted a reception at Government House, Melbourne. Those in attendance included representatives from Victorian organisations to which the Queen and other members of the Royal family have a connection.[464] On 5 February, the governor of New South Wales hosted a tree planting and garden reception to commemorate the jubilee, at Government House, Sydney. The governor planted a red oak.[502] On 7 February, the governor of Tasmania hosted a reception for the Royal Over-Seas League and other Commonwealth societies.[503] On 8 February, a motion introduced by Morrison was passed by the Australian House of Representatives, in which the House offered their "warmest congratulations" to the Queen. Morrison and the Leader of the Opposition, Anthony Albanese, also offered their personal congratulations to the Queen.[504][505]

From 5 February to 27 February, Parliament House hosted guided tours, titled Platinum Jubilee in portrait. These featured artistic representations of the Queen from the Parliament House art collection, including Sir William Dargie's Wattle Queen, the statue of the Queen in the Queen's Terrace Café, and depictions of the State Opening of Parliament in 1954 and 1974 and the opening of Parliament House in 1988.[506]

On 13 March, Government House, Brisbane hosted an open day, allowing the public to tour parts of the building and its gardens.[507]

On 5 August, all Royal Australian Infantry Corps battalion colours were paraded for the first time at the School of Infantry to mark the Jubilee.[508] On 6 August, The Queen's Platinum Jubilee Concert, directed by Alexander Voltz, occurred at St John's Cathedral, Brisbane.[509]

The Royal Queensland Show and the Queensland Government hosted the Queen's Platinum Jubilee Celebration Cake Competition. The cakes were displayed from 6 to 14 August in the Fine Arts Precinct of the Ekka's Channel 7 Pavilion.[510]

New Zealand
Tributes and commemoration

Tree planting at Government House to launch the Trees that Count Legacy Project for the jubilee, May 2022
On Accession Day, Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern congratulated the Queen and wished her well on behalf of New Zealanders.[511] Ardern announced that the government will donate $1 million to Trees That Count to assist with tree planting programmes across New Zealand.[511] Trees That Count is working with the Department of Conservation to support the planting of 100,000 native trees at 15 native restoration projects across New Zealand.[512] The project was launched on 16 May at Government House, where Dame Helen Winkelmann, the administrator of the government, and Kiri Allan, minister of conservation, planted a kauri.[513]

From Point Jerningham, Wellington, a 21-gun salute was fired by personnel from the 16th Field Regiment, Royal New Zealand Artillery, on 7 February.[511][514]

On 9 February, Ardern moved a motion and was passed in the House of Representatives congratulating the Queen on her jubilee.[515]

Commemorative coins were released by NZ Post.[516][517][518] A bulletin article – The Queen on New Zealand's Currency – was commissioned by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand to mark the Jubilee.[519]

At Te Awamutu, a plaque will be erected to commemorate both the jubilee and the Queen and Prince Philip's visit to Te Awamutu in 1954.[520] The plaque, which has been approved by the Queen herself, will be erected on the old Te Awamutu Post Office building.[521]

Events from June
On 2 June, at midday, a 21-gun salute was fired at Point Jerningham, Wellington.[522] In the evening, a beacon was lit on the steps to the Tangi Te Keo Mt Victoria lookout in Wellington, by former governor-general Sir Jerry Mateparae and the mayor of Wellington, Andy Foster.[523] A bonfire was lit in Christchurch and the Sky Tower in Auckland was lit up in red, yellow, and orange as a jubilee beacon.[524][525]

Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern speaking at the platinum jubilee service of celebration at Wellington Cathedral of St Paul on 3 June 2022
A service of celebration took place on 3 June at Wellington Cathedral of St Paul.[526] The service featured reflections about the Queen from former deputy prime minister and secretary-general of the Commonwealth, Sir Don McKinnon, and Queen's Young Leader award winner Ezekiel Raui.[527][528]

On 3 June, Prime Minister Ardern announced that a trail on Stewart Island / Rakiura, previously known as Observation Rock Track, would be renamed Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee Path.[529][530]

A contingent of 42 personnel from the New Zealand Defence Force marched in the Platinum Jubilee Pageant in London on 5 June.[531][532]

The 2022 Queen's Birthday and Platinum Jubilee Honours List was announced on 6 June 2022.[533] A 21-round salute was fired using a 1941 field gun at Timaru's Caroline Bay.[534] Auckland's Sky Tower was lit in purple for the occasion.[535]

Pakistan
On 2 June, a jubilee beacon by lit by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Islamabad.[536] The Pakistani President's bodyguards marched in the Jubilee Pageant in London on 5 June.[537]

On 8 June, Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif attended a jubilee celebration hosted by the British High Commission in Islamabad.[538] The Pakistan Monument was lit up in purple to mark the Jubilee.[539]

Ghana
On 2 June, First Lady Rebecca Akufo-Addo lit a beacon in Accra, at a ceremony organised by the Rotary Club Ghana.[540]

The Ghana Society-UK celebrated at the Luton International Carnival on 4 June.[541]

On 10 June, the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources held a tree planting at the Achimota Forest.[542]

Malaysia
On 2 June, Rotary Malaysia District 3300 lit a beacon.[543] The Malaysian British Society held a golf day for charity, on 2 June,[544] and members of the British Armed Forces based at Butterworth Air Base will hold a garden party from all Five Power Defence Arrangements member nations.[when?]

On 5 June, soldiers from the 1st Battalion of the Royal Malay Regiment (RMR) marched in the pageant in London.[545] The Yang di-Pertuan Agong congratulated the Queen and hailed her as a "ruler who cares about the welfare of the people".[546]

The British High Commission hosted an official reception later in June.[543]

Jamaica
On Accession Day, Governor-General Sir Patrick Allen, congratulated the Queen.[547]

The Queen's Platinum Jubilee Medal was presented to members of the Jamaica Defence Force, the Jamaica Constabulary Force, the Department of Correctional Services, the Jamaica Fire Brigade and the Emergency Medical Services.[548][549]

Trinidad and Tobago
President Paula-Mae Weekes attended the Royal Windsor Horse Show in May. At Windsor Castle, Weekes presented the Queen with a gift from the people of Trinidad and Tobago. The gift, Woman on the Bass, was designed and produced by artist Gillian Bishop.[550]

Kenya
In Aberdare Open Fields, close to Treetops where the Queen received the news of her accession, the Earl of Wessex and Forfar planted a tree on 16 March.[551]

On 2 June, a beacon was lit jointly by the High Commissioners of Barbados and India to Kenya, at an event held by Nairobi's Rotary Club in Karen.[552]

Malta
The Central Bank of Malta commissioned two commemorative coins for the jubilee and they were minted by the Royal Dutch Mint.[553][554] MaltaPost also issued a stamp in a miniature sheet for the occasion on 2 June.[555]

On 2 June, a tune called Diu Regnare, was played on bagpipes outside the Queen's former Pietá house – Villa Guardamangia.[556][557] Rotary Club Malta lit a jubilee beacon at the Msida Bastion Historic Garden in Floriana; attendees to the event included British High Commissioner Katherine Ward. On the same day, the Gozo Community Choir sang A Life Lived With Grace in a ceremony at Munxar on Gozo.[558]

Zambia
To mark the Queen's jubilee, Rotary International District 9210 and the Wildlife Environment Conservation Society of Zambia (WECSZ) partnered to plant at least 50 indigenous trees in each of the 10 provincial capitals of Zambia.[559]

Gambia
On 2 June, Rotary Club in the Gambia lit beacons at Tamala Beach Hotel.[560]

The British High Commission hosted government officials, and members of the diplomatic community at a reception on 3 June.[561]

Barbados
Prime Minister Mia Mottley attended a celebration at the British High Commission on 1 June. Mottley congratulated the Queen and said "all of us are grateful" for the Queen's work at bringing stability to the Commonwealth.[562][563]

Samoa
On 6 June, the jubilee was marked with a tree planting ceremony at the Vailima Botanical Gardens.[564] As part of the Queen's Green Canopy, the British High commissioner announced UK's funding contribution of £10,000 (SAT $33.2K) towards the Vailima Botanical Garden Zoning Project for the installation of accessibility resources for people with disabilities.[565]

On 9 June, Samoa Government officials including Acting Prime Minister Tuala Iosefo Ponifasio, Opposition Leader Tuilaepa Dr. Sa'ilele Malielegaoi, and Members of Parliament, attended a platinum jubilee reception hosted by the British High Commissioner at the Robert Louis Stevenson Museum at Vailima.[566]

Bangladesh
President Mohammad Abdul Hamid and Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina sent congratulatory messages.[567]

On 25 May, the Speaker of the Bangladesh Parliament Shirin Sharmin Chaudhury was the guest of honour at a reception at the British High Commission.[568]

On 2 June, the High Commissions of Canada, India, and the United Kingdom in Dhaka were lit up in purple.[569]

Bahamas
At Retreat Garden National Park in Nassau, on 28 January, two lignum vitae trees were planted by the commanding officer of HMS Medway, which is part of the Royal Navy's permanent presence in the region, providing humanitarian aid and working with local law enforcement on stopping the flow of illegal drugs.[570] Also present were members of the Bahamas National Trust and the UK High Commission in Nassau.[571]

A series of commemorative stamps was released by The Bahamas on 17 March.[572]

Papua New Guinea

(Left to right) Lady Tufi Dadae, Governor-General of Papua New Guinea Grand Chief Sir Bob Dadae, Governor-General of New Zealand Dame Cindy Kiro, and Dr Richard Davies in London, UK, for Platinum Jubilee events, 6 June 2022
On Accession Day, Governor-General Sir Bob Dadae reflected on the Queen's life and said that Papua New Guineans are proud to have Elizabeth II as their Queen.[573][574] He said:
Despite personal tragedies and setbacks in both her personal and public life, the Queen has continued to hold fast to her duty and service throughout the last 70 years. As a nation, we are indeed proud to have the Queen as our Head of State. A nation of a thousand tribes and cultural diversity in a land of diverse biodiversity, we join our voices to congratulate our Queen and Head of State on achieving this historic milestone.[573]

Considerations were being made to reserve a portion of Papua New Guinea's rainforests in honour of the Queen, given how she is "passionate for the preservation of rainforests".[575]

Solomon Islands
The jubilee was celebrated in Solomon Islands on 2 and 3 June, with 3 June being an official public holiday.[576]

The celebrations began in the morning of 2 June with a police band drum-beating ceremony in open vehicles from Henderson Police Station to White River amidst cheering groups waving flags along the highway at various locations in the city. Later in the evening, a thanksgiving service, cake cutting and lighting of a bonfire took place at the Saint Barnabas Anglican Cathedral.[576]

On 3 June, the planting of trees took place at Government House, followed by a reception for dignitaries and guests.[576]

Tuvalu
Commemorative stamps were released by Tuvalu on 6 February.[577]

Saint Lucia
On 3 June 2022, Acting Governor-General Errol Charles and his wife congratulated the Queen on behalf of Saint Lucians.[578]

Belize
Platinum jubilee medals were awarded, including to those who served during Hurricanes Hurricane Eta and Iota that flooded much of Cayo, and to those who served during the COVID-19 pandemic.[579]

On 2 June, a beacon was lit at the Governor General's Field next to Belize House, Belmopan.[33]

Antigua and Barbuda
The Antigua and Barbuda Scout Association and the Rotary Club of Antigua lit a beacon at Government House, St John's on 2 June.[580]

Saint Kitts and Nevis
On Accession Day, Governor-General Sir Tapley Seaton, congratulated the Queen on behalf of the government and people of Saint Kitts and Nevis.[581][582]

At Government House in Nevis, tree planting ceremonies took place on 14 March that was attended by Hyleeta Liburd, the deputy governor-general of Nevis. The Nevisian premier's ministry plans[needs update] to plant trees at six locations in Nevis, leading up to 2 June.[583]

On 2 June, a beacon was lit at the Nevis Athletic Stadium, with the public invited to attend.[584]

Brunei
The British High Commission held a photo exhibition for the jubilee.[585]

With the consent of Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah, the Sultan Haji Omar Ali Saifuddien Bridge was lit up in red, white and blue in the Queen's honour.[585][586]

Commemorations outside the Commonwealth
US President Joe Biden and First Lady Jill Biden's message for the platinum jubilee weekend in June.
Several world leaders congratulated the Queen on her milestone, including French president Emmanuel Macron,[587] German president Frank-Walter Steinmeier,[588] Irish president Michael D. Higgins,[589] Israeli president Isaac Herzog,[590] King Abdullah II of Jordan,[591] North Korean leader Kim Jong-un,[592] and Queen Margrethe II of Denmark. The latter, who was celebrating her golden jubilee that year, also sent a letter to Elizabeth II to highlight the "unprecedented and remarkable achievement" and how it underlined the "importance of the Monarchy as a strong symbol of national identity and historic continuity in a rapidly changing modern world".[593][594] A congratulatory message was also sent from former US president, Barack Obama.[595]

Some world leaders provided gifts to the Queen to commemorate the milestone. Macron gifted the Queen several items including a ceremonial saddle, cavalry sabre, and a seven-year-old horse formerly with the French Republican Guard named Fabuleux de Maucourt.[596] Azerbaijani president Ilham Aliyev, gifted the Queen a Karabakh horse named "Shohret", and a sculpture of a Karabakh horse and a Dilbaz horse.[597][598]

Several companies also released products to commemorate the jubilee. Italian luxury brand Bulgari unveiled the jubilee emerald garden high jewellery tiara, which can be worn either as a headpiece or as a necklace.[599] The American toy manufacturer Mattel released a Barbie bearing the Queen's likeness.[600] The Barbie is fitted with an elegant ivory gown and blue ribbon adorned with decorations of order.[601]

Public celebrations
Several landmarks around the world were illuminated to commemorate the jubilee. On 2 June, buildings on the UK-facing coasts of Hauts-de-France were illuminated in red, blue and gold.[602][596] Several Polish buildings were also illuminated in purple and white on that day, including the Palace of Culture and Science in Warsaw.[306][603] On 4 June, the Empire State Building was illuminated in purple and gold.[604]

Several jubilee concerts were also held in June. On 2 June, in the US, concerts were held at ʻIolani Palace in Honolulu and Governor's Palace in Colonial Williamsburg. Both musical performances also included the lighting of jubilee beacons, although the former in Honolulu also included aspects that highlighted of the relationship between the Hawaiian monarchs and the British royal family.[605][606] On 5 June, several concerts were held in Rome, including one by the New Chamber Singers and the All Saints' Orchestra at All Saints' Anglican Church, and another swing concert by the "Smile Orchestra" big band. The former performed music from the Queen's coronation whereas the latter performed music from the Queen's youth. The concert was the subject of interviews by RAI and BBC.[607]

Some private organisations also hosted jubilee dinners, including the Royal Commonwealth Society Hong Kong Branch on 2 June at the Hong Kong Club,[608] and the Dubai-based Queen Elizabeth 2 on 3 and 4 June.[609]

Commonwealth communities abroad
On 1 June, British and Canadian personnel of NATO's Allied Joint Force Command Brunssum took part in a parade to commemorate the platinum jubilee. The mayor of Brunssum served as the parade's guest of honour. Following the parade, British and Canadian communities hosted a jubilee street party in Brunssum, a tradition that dates back to the Queen's coronation in 1952.[610]

The British Residents Association planned a series of events across Switzerland during June.[611][612]

Initiatives by British diplomatic missions

Ceremony participants

Plaque marking the ceremony
A tree planting ceremony commemorating the jubilee occurred in Žilina on 3 November 2021.
Tree planting ceremonies supported by British diplomatic missions took place in several countries as a part of the Queen's Green Canopy. On 3 October 2021, the Princess Royal planted a tree at the residence of the British Ambassador to France.[613][deprecated source] On 3 November 2021, Nigel Baker, the British Ambassador to Slovakia, planted a tree at a local park in Žilina, Slovakia.[citation needed] The tree in Slovakia is twinned with a Prunus padus planted in Brookwood Cemetery in the UK, in commemoration of the UK's relationship with Slovakia and the Czech Republic.[614]

On 18 February Margareta and Andrew Noble, the British Ambassador to Romania, unveiled a plaque at Săvârșin Castle to mark the weeping hornbeam planted for the jubilee.[615] On 30 April 2022, the Cambodian government, in collaboration with the Kampot Provincial Administration, and the British Embassy in Phnom Penh, planted 1,000 mangrove trees in Kampot province.[616][617] The British Embassy in Tokyo also planted a tree.[618]

Several British embassies held arts and photo exhibitions. The British Embassy in Warsaw opened a photo exhibition along the side of Warsaw's largest park that featured images of the Queen meeting with Polish icons including Lech Walesa and Pope John Paul II.[306] The British Embassy in Paris displayed a collection of 3-metre-high (9.8 ft) portraits of the Queen at the Ambassador's residence.[306] The British Embassy in Baku displayed a carpet which uses traditional local weaving techniques to combine the English rose, Scottish thistle, Welsh daffodil, and Irish shamrock with Azerbaijan's national emblem, the pomegranate.[306]

A commemorative event for the platinum jubilee at the British Embassy in Washington.
Several British embassies held a jubilee lunch/dinner and cooking competition. The British Embassy in Mexico City held a jubilee dinner and a photo exhibition for the reign of Elizabeth II.[619][620] The British Embassy in Tokyo hosted a "Big Japan Jubilee Lunch", as well as organized the "Platinum Jubilee Afternoon Tea and Cake Competition". Ten hotels from Tokyo and Osaka entered the competition, with the finalists announced at British Embassy's Queen's Birthday Party event on 16 June.[618] The British Embassy in Montevideo launched "The Queen's Dessert" contest in which entrants made a dessert for afternoon tea or after the main course.[621] The desserts were evaluated by the chef of the British chancery and three Uruguayan chefs, including Sergio Puglia.[622] The British Embassy in Montevideo also hosted a dinner at its diplomatic residence, with several Uruguayan officials, including Vice-president Beatriz Argimón, foreign minister Francisco Bustillo, First Lady Lorena Ponce De León, and former President Luis Alberto Lacalle attending the dinner.[623] The winning dish was served as dessert.[624]

The British Embassy in Berne, in collaboration with World Radio Switzerland, asked people across Switzerland to nominate individuals who have made outstanding contributions to the lives of others within Switzerland for "The Platinum Champions Awards". The awardees were invited to the "Cheers for Volunteers" jubilee picnic, held at the Ambassador's Residence on 5 June.[625] The embassy also organised a light display projected on four Bernese Alps, including the Eiger. It featured an image of the jubilee crown emblem and a silhouette of the Queen.[306]

The British Embassy in Bangkok arranged for a celebratory digital message was beamed from the top of the Baiyoke Tower on 2 June.[306][626]

France
On Accession Day, the French Embassy in the United Kingdom planted a "Royal Beauty" apple tree from Normandy to highlight the UK's historic ties with the region.[627] Later that year in autumn, an alley of 70 hornbeams were planted at the British Normandy Memorial in Ver-sur-Mer, as a part of the Queen's Green Canopy initiative.[628][629]

On 28 May, the Red Arrows took part in an aerial display over Le Touquet.[630] Several days later, on 2 June, at the Arc de Triomphe, Macron participated in a flame rekindling ceremony to mark the jubilee. The anthem God Save the Queen was played by the Band of the Royal Regiment of Scotland, followed by La Marseillaise by the French Republican Guard Band.[631] On 7 June, the Prince of Wales expressed the gratitude of the Royal Family to Macron for the "gestures of deep friendship" shown by France during the jubilee.[632]

United States

Families from the British Embassy, Washington, planting trees along Massachusetts Avenue to mark the jubilee, May 2022
A series of events celebrating the jubilee were held in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis, New York City, and San Francisco.[306] From 2 June to 4 June, the Historical Society of Mount Lebanon, Pennsylvania, held a toy soldier display of more than 500 pieces depicting the Trooping the Colour.[633] A platinum jubilee evensong and reception took place on 5 June at Christ Church in Greenville, South Carolina.[634]

Jubilee visits
Akrotiri and Dhekelia
During their visit to the island of Cyprus from 20 to 22 June, the Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar spent time meeting British Armed Forces and their families based at the Sovereign Base Areas.[635]

Antigua and Barbuda
The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar visited Antigua and Barbuda in April.[636] Ahead of the visit, the Antigua and Barbuda Reparations Support Commission penned an open letter criticising the royal family's past comments on slavery.[637] During their visit on 25 April, the couple interacted with local craftspeople, creatives and community groups, and visited Sir Vivian Richards Stadium and the National Sailing Academy.[638] At Government House, they presented platinum jubilee medals to three people to recognise their service to national security.[639] During their meeting with Prime Minister Gaston Browne and his cabinet, Browne stated that the country would continue to have the Queen as head of state but said it aspires "at some point to become a republic".[640] He also asked the couple to use their "diplomatic influence" to get "reparatory justice" for Antigua and Barbuda.[640]

Australia
The Princess Royal, accompanied by her husband Vice Admiral Sir Timothy Laurence, toured Australia from 9 to 11 April.[641] On the first day of her visit, she opened the 200th Sydney Royal Easter Show, which she first opened with her parents and brother Charles in 1970. She had last attended the event in 1988.[641] She had an engagement as patron of the Royal Agricultural Society of the Commonwealth, before attending a dinner at the Sydney Olympic Park.[641] The couple also met with representatives of the New South Wales Rural Fire Service, the Royal Australian Corps of Signals and Royal Australian Corps of Transport.[641]

Bahamas

The Duchess of Cambridge meeting Bahamians during a walkabout in downtown Nassau, during the platinum jubilee tour of The Bahamas
Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, and his wife, Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, toured The Bahamas from 24 to 26 March.[636][642] They spent time with communities across the island, attending a junkanoo parade and The Bahamas Platinum Jubilee Sailing Regatta at Montagu foreshore,[643] visiting Sybil Strachan Primary School and meeting healthcare workers in the Garden of Remembrance.[644]

Though the Duke and Duchess toured the country as representatives of the Bahamian monarch,[644] at the request of the government of The Bahamas,[645] the Bahamas National Reparations Committee still penned an open letter ahead of the royal tour, asking for reparations from the United Kingdom for slavery.[646] In the evening of 25 March, the couple attended a reception hosted by the Queen's representative, Governor-General Sir Cornelius A Smith, at the Baha Mar Resort on Cable Beach in Nassau.[647] In his speech, the Duke said, "I am delighted to convey to you a message of good wishes from my grandmother, the Queen of The Bahamas, on the occasion of her platinum jubilee."[644] He went on to assure the Caribbean nations that the monarchy would "support with pride and respect your decisions about your future. Relationships evolve. Friendship endures".[648]

Belize
The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge visited from 19 to 22 March.[636][649] They visited the Mayan site of Caracol, explored Belize's Maya chocolate making, and met the Garifuna community in Hopkins. They also learned about the restoration of Belize's barrier reef, and scuba-dived there.[650][643][651] A planned visit to the Akte 'il Ha cacao farm in Indian Creek was scrapped due to residents' protests over lack of consultation about the local football pitch earmarked for the couple's helicopter landing as well as an ongoing dispute over land with Fauna and Flora International, of which the Duke is a patron.[652]

In the evening of 21 March, Governor-General Dame Froyla Tzalam hosted a reception at the Mayan ruins at Cahal Pech.[650]

Canada
Main article: 2022 royal tour of Canada
The Prince of Wales, heir apparent to the Canadian throne, and his wife, the Duchess of Cornwall, undertook a three-day tour of Canada as part of the jubilee celebrations.[656] Beginning in St John's on 17 May, the royal couple participated in a moment of reflection and prayer with indigenous leaders and community members at the Heart Garden[657] and unveiled a 1 km Platinum Jubilee Walkway on the grounds of Government House that will connect 54 trees planted by members of the Canadian royal family (including Their Royal Highnesses that day) and viceregal representatives and is planned to open in September.[658] The following day, Charles and Camilla were in Ottawa, where the Prince was invested by the Governor General into the Order of Military Merit as an Extraordinary Commander. The couple later participated in a wreath-laying ceremony at the National War Memorial and met with Canadian-Ukrainian organisations before the Prince of Wales discussed employment and sustainability with participants of The Prince's Trust Canada. In the evening, the Governor General hosted a reception at Rideau Hall.[657] RoseAnne Archibald, National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations, said that Charles acknowledged failures by Canadian governments in handling the relationship between the Crown and indigenous people, which she said "really meant something".[659] The couple arrived on 19 May in Yellowknife and Dettah. In the latter, they visited a Dene First Nation community and the Prince held discussions with local chiefs and elders, as well as met local food producers at the Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre. The Duchess visited Kaw Tay Whee School and a YWCA transitional housing centre for women and their children. Later, the Prince and the Duchess visited the Ceremonial Circle for a platinum jubilee flag raising and the unveiling of a plaque.[657]

In June, the government of Canada announced official donations on behalf of the royal couple to mark their jubilee tour. The government announced contributions of C$15,000 to Conservation Corps Newfoundland and Labrador, C$15,000 to Start2Finish Canada, C$15,000 to Aboriginal Sport Circle of the Northwest Territories, and C$25,000 to United Way Northwest Territories.[660] The Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador, Andrew Furey, announced a $10,000 legacy gift to the East Coast Trail Association in commemoration of the royal tour.[661]

Cyprus
From 20 to 22 June 2022, the Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar visited Cyprus. They were received by President Nicos Anastasiades, and attended a reception hosted by the British High Commissioner to Cyprus to mark the jubilee.[662] Highlights of the tour included a reception at the Presidential Palace and a visit to the UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus to recognise the UK's contributions to UNFICYP.[662] The Countess met women and young people and learned about their contributions in Cyprus by being a member of projects such as the Women Mediators Across the Commonwealth network or the UN and British Council 'Young Leaders in Action' programme. The Earl met students who had taken part in the Duke of Edinburgh's Award.[662]

Gibraltar
The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar visited Gibraltar from 7 to 9 June.[663] Upon their arrival, the couple were greeted by Sir David Steel, the governor, and Fabian Picardo, the chief minister and received a military welcome by a Guard of Honour formed of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment.[664] They also met with volunteers from various charities and held audiences with the Duke of Edinburgh's International Award participants.[665] Among other places visited by the couple were the Moorish Castle Estate, the University of Gibraltar, and Sandy Bay.[665] The trip also featured a special Queen's Birthday Parade near Grand Casemates Square on 9 June.[664]

Grenada
The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar were set to visit Grenada in April.[636] However, after talks with the island's government and governor general, the tour was postponed and the couple expressed their hopes to visit the country on a later date.[666] It was reported that representatives of Grenada's National Reparations Committee had planned to meet the couple and discuss Britain and the royal family's past links to slavery in the region.[667]

Guernsey
The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar visited Guernsey, Alderney and Sark, from 9 to 10 May, to mark Liberation Day as well as the jubilee.[668] They first visited the Liberation Tea Dance at Beau Séjour, and later travelled to Castle Cornet for an Ecumenical Service, and delivered a message from the Queen, before watching a special performance of 'Sarnia Cherie' by the Guernsey Music Service Youth Choir. They later watched the Liberation Day Cavalcade as it travelled around the Model Yacht Pond. The next day, they visited Forest Primary School in Guernsey, to see preparations for their celebrations, where they also met the winner of the Guernsey platinum jubilee flag competition.[669] In Alderney, they visited Victoria Street, St Anne, and the Alderney Wildlife Trust (AWT). At Island Hall, they attended a reception, and later at the Roman Fort heritage site at Longis, they formally broke ground for the forthcoming platinum jubilee Archaeological Dig. They later boarded the Channel Islands' only train service, at the Arsenal.[669] In Sark, they presented emergency service personnel with Platinum Jubilee medals, and also met Sark's occupation generation in the Island Hall, where the Earl presented a message from the Queen.[669]

Ireland
The Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall visited the Republic of Ireland from 24 to 25 March.[636] In County Waterford, the couple visited Waterford city centre, met with members of the Ukrainian community, toured a selection of museums and learned about the history of Reginald's Tower.[670] In County Tipperary, they toured a farmers market in Cahir, and visited Cahir Castle and the Rock of Cashel.[671]

Jamaica

The Duchess of Cambridge (left) arriving at Norman Manley International Airport in Kingston, during the Platinum Jubilee tour of Jamaica
The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge toured Jamaica from 22 to 24 March,[636][672][643] on behalf of the Queen of Jamaica.[673] They joined young football players in Trench Town and celebrated the legacy of Bob Marley and other Jamaican musicians. At the Shortwood Teachers' College, they met students training to become early childhood education practitioners. At Spanish Town Hospital, they met frontline workers and, later, interacted with members of the Jamaica Defence Force at Flankers, near Montego Bay.[650] A demonstration by the Advocates Network, a human rights coalition of Jamaican activists and equalities organisations, took place near the British High Commission in Kingston to ask for an apology and compensation from the Crown for chattel slavery.[674]

The Duke and Duchess were received by the Prime Minister, Andrew Holness.[675] At the dinner hosted by the Governor-General at King's House, the Duke expressed his "profound sorrow" over slavery, adding that it "should never have happened" and "forever stains our history".[676]

On their final day in Jamaica, the couple attended the inaugural Commissioning Parade for service personnel from across the Caribbean who had recently completed the Caribbean Military Academy's Officer Training Programme.[650] The tour was estimated to have cost JMD $8 million.[677]

Jersey
The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar visited Jersey from 8 to 9 May to mark Liberation Day as well as the jubilee.[678] At Government House in St Saviour, the Earl and Countess met members of the community and members of the Commonwealth Games Association Jersey, the Duke of Edinburgh's Award in Jersey and Jersey Mencap. To commemorate the platinum jubilee, the couple unveiled the Le temps s'passes vite Platinum Jubilee Sundial. Later, at the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society, the couple saw items related to the German Occupation.[669] The next day, the couple unveiled a plaque on Jersey's new official saluting gun battery in memory of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. At the Liberation Day event, the Earl read a message from the Queen. The couple then met members of the 'occupation generation'. The Earl and Countess later viewed the Liberation Day March Past, which comprised marching bands, serving military units, veterans and youth organisations.[669]

Papua New Guinea
The Princess Royal visited the country from 11 to 13 April.[636] She and her husband Vice Admiral Sir Timothy Laurence were greeted by Prime Minister James Marape upon their arrival, who also hosted a dinner for the couple on the last day of their tour.[679] Among their engagements were visits to a Catholic boarding school, St John Ambulance PNG, the Bomana War Cemetery, Papua New Guinea National Museum and Art Gallery, Port Moresby General Hospital, Vabukori, and Hanuabada.[680]

During the Princess's visit, the Minister for National Events, Justin Tkatchenko, said that the country won't make a transition to a republic, and Papua New Guinea is embracing its monarchy and "making it bigger and better than it was before".[681]

Saint Lucia

The Countess of Wessex and Forfar meeting schoolchildren during her Platinum Jubilee Tour of Saint Lucia
The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar arrived in Saint Lucia on 22 April.[636] They met Prime Minister Philip J. Pierre, and acting Governor-General Errol Charles.[682] On 24 April, they attended a jubilee church service and visited Morne Fortune.[683] On 27 April, they met locals in Soufrière.[684] They also toured a cocoa plantation and met representatives of female-led businesses before visiting Sulphur Springs and having lunch with the prime minister.[684] They also watched a performance by young people at the Mini Stadium.[684] On 28 April, they wrapped up their tour by meeting pupils from six separate Saint Lucian schools.[685]

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
The Earl and Countess of Wessex and Forfar visited Saint Vincent and the Grenadines on 23 April.[636] They were greeted by Governor-General Dame Susan Dougan and Deputy Prime Minister Montgomery Daniel.[686] The Countess met members of the La Gracia Dance Company and representatives from two local organisations that assist blind and partially sighted people.[686] The Earl met athletes who would take part in the 2022 Commonwealth Games.[686] The couple also visited Botanic Gardens St. Vincent, where they planted a tree.[686] During the visit, a small group gathered outside the Government House to protest the visit.[687]

Online significance
In May 2022, jubilee-themed emojis and stickers were released on social media, including Twitter and Instagram.[688][689][690]

Research into Google Search's trend data found that the UK, US, Canada, and Australia were the global hotspots for the word "Jubilee" from 2 June to 5 June. During the jubilee central weekend, Canada saw 227,000 searches for the word jubilee on Google, while over 200,000 were recorded in Australia. In the US, a total of 1.9 million searches for the word jubilee was made on Google.[691]

British slang "Platty Joobs" also became a trend online for the Platinum Jubilee.[692]

Death of the Queen
Main article: Death and state funeral of Elizabeth II
On 8 September 2022, a few months after celebrating her Platinum Jubilee in the summer, the Queen died at Balmoral Castle in Scotland, aged 96. At the time of her death, the Queen had reigned for 70 years and 214 days, the longest of any monarch in British history. Her reign is the longest verifiable reign of any female sovereign, and is only second to Louis XIV.[693]

See also
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2022 in the United Kingdom
2022 in Canada
2022 in Australia
2022 in New Zealand
2022 in Jamaica
2022 in Belize
Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II
Ruby Jubilee of Elizabeth II
Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II
Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II
Sapphire Jubilee of Elizabeth II
Death and state funeral of Elizabeth II
History of monarchy in Australia
History of monarchy in Canada
List of monarchs in Britain by length of reign
List of jubilees of British monarchs
Notes
 King Louis XIV reigned for more than 70 years over areas that are today within Canada, but did not celebrate a platinum jubilee.
 Royally-designated organisations in Manitoba (and the year they received the Royal prefix from the Queen) are: Royal Winnipeg Ballet (1953), Royal Manitoba Winter Fair (1970), Royal Manitoba Yacht Club (1981), Royal Military Institute of Manitoba (1982), Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre (2010), and Royal Aviation Museum of Western Canada (2014).
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 Premier Furey Announces Legacy Gift to the East Coast Trail Association in honour of the 2022 Royal Tour of Canada
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 Trevelyan, Laura (22 April 2022). "Earl and Countess of Wessex: Why Grenada wanted to talk to royals about slavery". BBC. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
 "Liberation Day: Channel Islands to receive Royal visit". BBC News. 5 April 2022.
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 Michael, Neil (25 March 2022). "Prince Charles and Camilla visit Cahir Castle and farmers market on trip to Tipperary". Irish Examiner. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
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For other uses, see Beyoncé (disambiguation).
Beyoncé

Beyoncé in 2023
Born    Beyonce Giselle Knowles[a]
September 4, 1981 (age 42)
Houston, Texas, U.S.
Other names    
Harmonies by The Hive[1]Queen Bey[2]Third Ward Trill[3]
Occupations    
Singersongwriterproducerbusinesswomanactressphilanthropist[4]record executivedirector
Years active    1990–present
Organization    BeyGOOD
Works    
Albums[b]singlessongsvideosperformances
Title    
Founder, chairwoman, and CEO of Parkwood Entertainment
Co-founder, CEO, and owner of Ivy Park
Founder, chairwoman, and owner of Cécred
Spouse    Jay-Z ​(m. 2008)​
Children    3, including Blue Ivy
Parents    
Mathew Knowles
Tina Lawson
Relatives    
Solange Knowles (sister)
Angela Beyincé (cousin)
Awards    Full list
Musical career
Genres    
R&Bpophip hopafrobeatsdancecountry
[5]
Instrument(s)    
Vocals
Labels    
ParkwoodColumbiaMusic World
Member of    The Carters
Formerly of    Destiny's Child
Website    beyonce.com
Signature

Beyoncé Giselle Knowles-Carter (/biˈɒnseɪ/ ⓘ bee-ON-say;[6] née Knowles; born September 4, 1981)[7] is an American singer, songwriter and businesswoman. Dubbed "Queen Bey", she is regarded as a prominent cultural figure of the 21st century and has been recognized for her artistry and performances, with Rolling Stone naming her one of the greatest vocalists of all time.

As a child, Beyoncé started performing in various singing and dancing competitions. She rose to fame in the late 1990s as a member of the R&B girl group Destiny's Child, one of the best-selling girl groups of all time. Their hiatus saw the release of Beyoncé's debut album, Dangerously in Love (2003). She then followed with the US number-one solo albums B'Day (2006), I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008), and 4 (2011). After creating her own management company Parkwood Entertainment, Beyoncé achieved critical acclaim for the experimental visual albums Beyoncé (2013) and Lemonade (2016), which explored themes such as feminism and womanism. With her Black queer-inspired dance album Renaissance (2022) and country album Cowboy Carter (2024) from her trilogy project, she became the only female artist to have all of her solo studio albums debut at number one on the Billboard 200.

Beyoncé's most successful songs on the Billboard Hot 100 include "Crazy in Love", "Baby Boy", "Check On It", "Irreplaceable", "If I Were a Boy", "Halo", "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", "Drunk in Love", "Break My Soul", "Cuff It" and "Texas Hold 'Em". She is the only woman in history to achieve at least 20 top 10 songs as a solo artist and 10 as a member of a group.[8] Her collaborative music ventures include Everything Is Love (2018), an album with her husband and rapper Jay-Z, released as the Carters, and the musical film Black Is King (2020), inspired by the music of the film soundtrack The Lion King: The Gift (2019). Self-directed concert films, including Homecoming: A Film by Beyoncé (2019) and Renaissance: A Film by Beyoncé (2023), document some of her most acclaimed onstage performances. Outside of music, she has starred as an actress in films such as Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002), The Pink Panther (2006), Dreamgirls (2006), Cadillac Records (2008), Obsessed (2009), and The Lion King (2019).

Having sold 200 million records worldwide,[9] Beyoncé is one of the best-selling music artists of all time. Her accolades include a record 32 Grammy Awards, as well as 26 MTV Video Music Awards (including the 2014 Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award), 24 NAACP Image Awards, 35 BET Awards, and 17 Soul Train Music Awards – all of which are more than any other artist in the music industry. Her success during the 2000s earned her recognition as the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)'s Top Certified Artist of the Decade and Billboard's Top Female Artist and Top Radio Songs Artist of the Decade.[10] She is the most successful black touring act in history and received the Pollstar Touring Artist of the Decade award in 2021.[11][12] Rolling Stone named her the world's greatest living entertainer of the past decade.[13][14] Time included her as one of the 100 women who has so far defined the 21st century.[15]

Early life
Beyonce Giselle Knowles[a] was born on September 4, 1981, in Houston to Celestine "Tina" Knowles (née Beyonce), a hairdresser and salon owner, and Mathew Knowles, a Xerox sales manager.[16] Tina is Louisiana Creole and Mathew is African American.[17][18][19][20] Beyoncé's younger sister, Solange Knowles, is also a singer and a former backup dancer for Destiny's Child. Solange and Beyoncé are the first sisters to have both had number one solo albums.[21]

Beyoncé's maternal grandparents, Lumis Albert Beyincé and Agnéz Deréon (daughter of Odilia Broussard and Eugène DeRouen),[22] were French-speaking Louisiana Creoles, with roots in New Iberia;[23][22][24] She is a descendant of Acadian militia officer Joseph Broussard, who was exiled to French Louisiana after the expulsion of the Acadians, and of the French military officer and Abenaki chief Jean-Vincent d'Abbadie, Baron de Saint-Castin.[18][25] Beyoncé's fourth great-grandmother, Marie-Françoise Trahan, was born in 1774 in Bangor, located on Belle Île, France. Trahan was a daughter of Acadians who had taken refuge on Belle Île after the Acadian expulsion. The Estates of Brittany had divided the lands of Belle Île to distribute them among 78 other Acadian families and the already settled inhabitants. The Trahan family lived on Belle Île for over ten years before migrating to Louisiana, where she married a Broussard descendant.[26] Beyoncé researched her ancestry and discovered that she is descended from a slave owner who married his slave.[27] Her mother is also of distant Irish, Jewish, Spanish, Chinese and Indonesian ancestry.[28][29][30][23]

Beyoncé was raised Methodist and attended St. John's United Methodist Church in Houston.[31][32] As her mother's family was Catholic, on Christmas Eve her family attended Midnight mass at St. Mary of the Purification Catholic Church.[33] She went to St. Mary's Catholic Montessori School in Houston and enrolled in dance classes there.[34] Her singing ability was discovered when dance instructor Darlette Johnson began humming a song and Beyonce finished it, able to hit the high-pitched notes.[35] Beyoncé's interest in music and performing continued after winning a school talent show at age seven, singing John Lennon's "Imagine" to beat 15/16-year-olds.[36][37] In the fall of 1990, Beyoncé enrolled in Parker Elementary School, a music magnet school in Houston, where she performed with the school's choir.[38] She also attended the High School for the Performing and Visual Arts[39] and later Alief Elsik High School.[17][40] Beyoncé was also a member of the choir at St. John's United Methodist Church where she sang her first solo and was a soloist for two years.[31][41]

Career
Career beginnings
When Beyoncé was eight, she met LaTavia Roberson at an audition for an all-girl entertainment group.[42] They were placed into a group called Girl's Tyme with three other girls, and rapped and danced on the talent show circuit in Houston.[43] After seeing the group, R&B producer Arne Frager brought them to his Northern California studio and placed them in Star Search, the largest talent show on national TV at the time. Girl's Tyme failed to win, and Beyoncé later said the song they performed was not good.[44][45] In 1995, Beyoncé's father, Matthew, resigned from his job to manage the group.[46] The move reduced the family's income by half, and Beyoncé's parents were forced to sell their house and cars and move into separated apartments.[17][47]

Mathew cut the original line-up to four and the group continued performing as an opening act for other established R&B girl groups.[42] The girls auditioned before record labels and were finally signed to Elektra Records, moving to Atlanta Records briefly to work on their first recording, only to be cut by the company.[17] This put further strain on the family, and Beyoncé's parents separated. On October 5, 1995, Dwayne Wiggins's Grass Roots Entertainment signed the group. In 1996, the girls began recording their debut album under an agreement with Sony Music, the Knowles family reunited, and shortly after, the group got a contract with Columbia Records with the assistance of Columbia talent scout Teresa LaBarbera Whites.[36]

1997–2002: Destiny's Child
Main article: Destiny's Child

Beyoncé (center) at the final line-up of Destiny's Child, performing during their 2005 Destiny Fulfilled... and Lovin' It concert tour
The group changed their name to Destiny's Child in 1996, based upon a passage in the Book of Isaiah.[48] In 1997, Destiny's Child released their major label debut song "Killing Time" on the soundtrack to the 1997 film Men in Black.[45] In November, the group released their debut single and first major hit, "No, No, No". They released their self-titled debut album in February 1998, which established the group as a viable act in the music industry.[42] The group released their Multi-Platinum second album The Writing's on the Wall in 1999. The record features songs such as "Bills, Bills, Bills", the group's first number-one single, "Jumpin' Jumpin'" and "Say My Name", which became their most successful song at the time, and would remain one of their signature songs. "Say My Name" won the Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and the Best R&B Song at the 43rd Annual Grammy Awards.[42] The Writing's on the Wall sold more than eight million copies worldwide.[44] During this time, Beyoncé recorded a duet with Marc Nelson, an original member of Boyz II Men, on the song "After All Is Said and Done" for the soundtrack to the 1999 film, The Best Man.[49]

The remaining band members recorded "Independent Women Part I", which appeared on the soundtrack to the 2000 film Charlie's Angels. It became their best-charting single, topping the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart for eleven consecutive weeks.[42] In early 2001, while Destiny's Child was completing their third album, Beyoncé landed a major role in the MTV made-for-television film, Carmen: A Hip Hopera, starring alongside American actor Mekhi Phifer. Set in Philadelphia, the film is a modern interpretation of the 19th-century opera Carmen by French composer Georges Bizet.[50] When the third album Survivor was released in May 2001, Luckett and Roberson filed a lawsuit claiming that the songs were aimed at them.[42] The album debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 663,000 copies sold.[51] The album spawned other number-one hits, "Bootylicious" and the title track, "Survivor", the latter of which earned the group a Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.[52] After releasing their holiday album 8 Days of Christmas in October 2001, the group announced a hiatus to further pursue solo careers.[42]

In July 2002, Beyoncé made her theatrical film debut, playing Foxxy Cleopatra alongside Mike Myers in the comedy film Austin Powers in Goldmember,[53] which spent its first weekend atop the U.S. box office and grossed $73 million.[54] Beyoncé released "Work It Out" as the lead single from its soundtrack album which entered the top ten in the UK, Norway, and Belgium.[55] In 2003, Beyoncé starred opposite Cuba Gooding Jr. in the musical comedy The Fighting Temptations as Lilly, a single mother with whom Gooding's character falls in love.[56] The film received mixed reviews from critics but grossed $30 million in the U.S.[57][58] Beyoncé released "Fighting Temptation" as the lead single from the film's soundtrack album, with Missy Elliott, MC Lyte, and Free which was also used to promote the film.[59] Another of Beyoncé's contributions to the soundtrack, "Summertime", fared better on the U.S. charts.[60]

2003–2007: Dangerously in Love, B'Day, and Dreamgirls
A woman, flanked by two male dancers, holds a microphone in one hand as she dances
Beyoncé performing "Baby Boy", which spent nine consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart[61]
Beyoncé's first solo recording was a feature on Jay-Z's song "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" that was released in October 2002, peaking at number four on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart.[62] On June 14, 2003, Beyoncé premiered songs from her first solo album Dangerously in Love during her first solo concert and the pay-per-view television special, "Ford Presents Beyoncé Knowles, Friends & Family, Live From Ford's 100th Anniversary Celebration in Dearborn, Michigan".[63] The album was released on June 24, 2003, after Michelle Williams and Kelly Rowland had released their solo efforts.[64] The album sold 317,000 copies in its first week, debuted atop the Billboard 200,[65] and has since sold 11 million copies worldwide.[66]

The album's lead single, "Crazy in Love", featuring Jay-Z, became Beyoncé's first number-one single as a solo artist in the US.[67] The single "Baby Boy" also reached number one,[61] and singles, "Me, Myself and I" and "Naughty Girl", both reached the top-five.[68] The album earned Beyoncé a then record-tying five awards at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards; Best Contemporary R&B Album, Best Female R&B Vocal Performance for "Dangerously in Love 2", Best R&B Song and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Crazy in Love", and Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for "The Closer I Get to You" with Luther Vandross. During the ceremony, she performed with Prince.[69]

In November 2003, she embarked on the Dangerously in Love Tour in Europe and later toured alongside Missy Elliott and Alicia Keys for the Verizon Ladies First Tour in North America.[70] On February 1, 2004, Beyoncé performed the American national anthem at Super Bowl XXXVIII, at the Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas.[71] After the release of Dangerously in Love, Beyoncé had planned to produce a follow-up album using several of the left-over tracks. However, this was put on hold so she could concentrate on recording Destiny Fulfilled, the final studio album by Destiny's Child.[72] Released on November 15, 2004, in the US[73] and peaking at number two on the Billboard 200,[74][75] Destiny Fulfilled included the singles "Lose My Breath" and "Soldier", which reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.[76]

Destiny's Child embarked on a worldwide concert tour, Destiny Fulfilled... and Lovin' It sponsored by McDonald's Corporation,[77] and performed songs such as "No, No, No", "Survivor", "Say My Name", "Independent Women" and "Lose My Breath". In addition to renditions of the group's recorded material, they also performed songs from each singer's solo careers, including numbers from Dangerously in Love. and during the last stop of their European tour, in Barcelona on June 11, 2005, Rowland announced that Destiny's Child would disband following the North American leg of the tour.[78] The group released their first compilation album Number 1's on October 25, 2005, in the US[79] and accepted a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in March 2006.[80] The group has sold 60 million records worldwide.[81][82]

Beyoncé's second solo album B'Day was released on September 4, 2006, in the US, to coincide with her twenty-fifth birthday.[83] It sold 541,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the Billboard 200, becoming Beyoncé's second consecutive number-one album in the United States.[84] The album's lead single "Déjà Vu", featuring Jay-Z, reached the top five on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.[68] The second international single "Irreplaceable" was a commercial success worldwide, reaching number one in Australia, Hungary, Ireland, New Zealand and the United States.[68][85] B'Day also produced three other singles; "Ring the Alarm",[86] "Get Me Bodied",[87] and "Green Light" (released in the United Kingdom only).[88]

A woman stands with a microphone
Beyoncé performing during The Beyoncé Experience tour in 2007
At the 49th Annual Grammy Awards (2007), B'Day was nominated for five Grammy Awards, including Best Contemporary R&B Album, Best Female R&B Vocal Performance for "Ring the Alarm" and Best R&B Song and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration"for "Déjà Vu"; the Freemasons club mix of "Déjà Vu" without the rap was put forward in the Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical category. B'Day won the award for Best Contemporary R&B Album.[89] The following year, B'Day received two nominations – for Record of the Year for "Irreplaceable" and Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals for "Beautiful Liar" (with Shakira), also receiving a nomination for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for Motion Pictures, Television or Other Visual Media for her appearance on Dreamgirls: Music from the Motion Picture (2006).[90]

Her first acting role of 2006 was in the comedy film The Pink Panther starring opposite Steve Martin,[91] grossing $158.8 million at the box office worldwide.[92] Her second film Dreamgirls, the film version of the 1981 Broadway musical[93] loosely based on The Supremes, received acclaim from critics and grossed $154 million internationally.[94][95][96] In it, she starred opposite Jennifer Hudson, Jamie Foxx, and Eddie Murphy playing a pop singer based on Diana Ross.[97] To promote the film, Beyoncé released "Listen" as the lead single from the soundtrack album.[98] In April 2007, Beyoncé embarked on The Beyoncé Experience, her first worldwide concert tour, visiting 97 venues[99] and grossed over $24 million.[c] Beyoncé conducted pre-concert food donation drives during six major stops in conjunction with her pastor at St. John's and America's Second Harvest. At the same time, B'Day was re-released with five additional songs, including her duet with Shakira "Beautiful Liar".[101]

2008–2012: I Am... Sasha Fierce and 4
A woman stands looking out to a crowd
Beyoncé performing during the I Am... Tour
I Am... Sasha Fierce was released in November 2008 and formally introduced Beyoncé's alter ego Sasha Fierce.[102] It was met with mixed reviews from critics,[103] but sold 482,000 copies in its first week, debuting atop the Billboard 200, and giving Beyoncé her third consecutive number-one album in the US.[104] The album featured her fourth UK number-one single "If I Were a Boy" and her fifth U.S. number-one song "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)".[105] "Halo" achieved the accomplishment of becoming her longest-running Hot 100 single in her career,[106] "Halo"'s success in the U.S. helped Beyoncé attain more top-ten singles on the list than any other woman during the 2000s.[107]

The music video for "Single Ladies" has been parodied and imitated around the world, spawning the "first major dance craze" of the Internet age according to the Toronto Star.[108] At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, the video won three categories, including Video of the Year.[109] Its failure to win the Best Female Video category, which went to American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift's "You Belong with Me", led to Kanye West interrupting the ceremony and Beyoncé improvising a re-presentation of Swift's award during her own acceptance speech.[109] In March 2009, Beyoncé embarked on the I Am... Tour, her second headlining worldwide concert tour, consisting of 108 shows, grossing $119.5 million.[110]

Beyoncé further expanded her acting career, starring as blues singer Etta James in the 2008 musical biopic Cadillac Records. Her performance in the film received praise from critics,[111] and she garnered several nominations for her portrayal of James, including a Satellite Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress, and a NAACP Image Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress.[112][113] Beyoncé donated her entire salary from the film to Phoenix House, an organization of rehabilitation centers for heroin addicts around the country.[114] Beyoncé starred opposite Ali Larter and Idris Elba in the thriller, Obsessed. She played Sharon Charles, a mother and wife whose family is threatened by her husband's stalker. The film received negative reviews from critics,[115] and did well at the U.S. box office, grossing $68 million – $60 million more than Cadillac Records[116] – on a budget of $20 million.[117]

At the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards, Beyoncé received ten nominations, tying with Lauryn Hill for most Grammy nominations in a single year by a female artist.[118] Beyoncé went on to win six of those nominations, breaking a record she previously tied in 2004 for the most Grammy awards won in a single night by a female artist with six. In 2010, Beyoncé provide guest vocals on Lady Gaga's single "Telephone".[119][120] The song topped the U.S. Pop Songs chart, becoming the sixth number-one for both Beyoncé and Gaga, tying them with Mariah Carey for most number-ones since the Nielsen Top 40 airplay chart launched in 1992.[121]

Beyoncé announced a hiatus from her music career in January 2010, heeding her mother's advice, "to live life, to be inspired by things again".[122][123] During the break, she and her father parted ways as business partners.[124][125] Beyoncé's musical break lasted nine months and saw her visit multiple European cities, the Great Wall of China, the Egyptian pyramids, Australia, English music festivals and various museums and ballet performances.[122][126] "Eat, Play, Love", a cover story written by Beyoncé for Essence that detailed her 2010 career break, won her a writing award from the New York Association of Black Journalists.[127]

The upper body of a woman is shown as she sings into a microphone
Beyoncé's performing during her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé concert residency in August 2011
On June 26, 2011, she became the first solo female artist to headline the main Pyramid stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival in over twenty years.[128][129] The performance was lauded, with several publications noting an ascension in Knowles' capabilities as a live performer. Other publications discussed the polarized attitude of the UK music establishment in response to a Black woman performing on the same stages and to the same crowd sizes that were past reserved for legacy rock acts.[130][131] Her fourth studio album 4 was released two days prior in the US.[132] 4 sold 310,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart, giving Beyoncé her fourth consecutive number-one album in the US. The album was preceded by two of its singles "Run the World (Girls)" and "Best Thing I Never Had".[68][119][133] The fourth single "Love on Top" spent seven consecutive weeks at number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, while peaking at number 20 on the Billboard Hot 100, the highest peak from the album.[134]

In late 2011, she took the stage at New York's Roseland Ballroom for four nights of special performances:[135] the 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé concerts saw the performance of her 4 album to a standing room only.[135] On August 1, 2011, the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), having shipped 1 million copies to retail stores.[136] By December 2015, it reached sales of 1.5 million copies in the US.[137] The album reached one billion Spotify streams on February 5, 2018, making Beyoncé the first female artist to have three of their albums surpass one billion streams on the platform.[138] In June 2012, she performed for four nights at Revel Atlantic City's Ovation Hall to celebrate the resort's opening, her first performances since giving birth to her daughter.[139][140]

2013–2017: Super Bowl XLVII, Beyoncé, and Lemonade

Beyoncé performing at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show on February 3, 2013
In January 2013, Beyoncé performed the American national anthem singing along with a pre-recorded track at President Obama's second inauguration in Washington, D.C.[141][142] The following month, Beyoncé performed at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show, held at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans.[143] The performance stands as the second most tweeted about moment in history at 268,000 tweets per minute.[144] Her feature-length documentary film, Life Is But a Dream, first aired on HBO on February 16, 2013.[145] The film was co-directed by Beyoncé herself.[146]

Beyoncé embarked on The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour on April 15 in Belgrade, Serbia; the tour included 132 dates that ran through to March 2014. It became the most successful tour of her career and one of the most successful tours of all time.[147] In May, Beyoncé's cover of Amy Winehouse's "Back to Black" with André 3000 on The Great Gatsby soundtrack was released.[148] Beyoncé voiced Queen Tara in the 3D CGI animated film, Epic, released by 20th Century Fox on May 24,[149] and recorded an original song for the film, "Rise Up", co-written with Sia.[150]

On December 13, 2013, Beyoncé unexpectedly released her eponymous fifth studio album on the iTunes Store without any prior announcement or promotion. The album debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart, giving Beyoncé her fifth consecutive number-one album in the US.[151] This made her the first woman in the chart's history to have her first five studio albums debut at number one.[152] Beyoncé received critical acclaim[153] and commercial success, selling one million digital copies worldwide in six days;[154] Musically an electro-R&B album, it concerns darker themes previously unexplored in her work, such as "bulimia, postnatal depression [and] the fears and insecurities of marriage and motherhood".[155] The single "Drunk in Love", featuring Jay-Z, peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 chart.[156]

According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), Beyoncé sold 2.3 million units worldwide, becoming the tenth best-selling album of 2013.[157] The album also went on to become the twentieth best-selling album of 2014.[158] As of November 2014, Beyoncé has sold over 5 million copies worldwide and has generated over 1 billion streams, as of March 2015.[159] At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards in February 2015, Beyoncé was nominated for six awards, ultimately winning three: Best R&B Performance and Best R&B Song for "Drunk in Love", and Best Surround Sound Album for Beyoncé.[160][161]

In April 2014, Beyoncé and Jay-Z officially announced their On the Run Tour. It served as the couple's first co-headlining stadium tour together.[162] On August 24, 2014, she received the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards. Beyoncé also won home three competitive awards: Best Video with a Social Message and Best Cinematography for "Pretty Hurts", as well as best collaboration for "Drunk in Love".[163] In November, Forbes reported that Beyoncé was the top-earning woman in music for the second year in a row – earning $115 million in the year, more than double her earnings in 2013.[164]

Beyoncé released "Formation" in on February 6, 2016, and performed it live for the first time during the NFL Super Bowl 50 halftime show. The appearance was considered controversial as it appeared to reference the 50th anniversary of the Black Panther Party and the NFL forbids political statements in its performances.[165][166][167] Immediately following the performance, Beyoncé announced The Formation World Tour, which highlighted stops in both North America and Europe.[168][169] It ended on October 7, with Beyoncé bringing out her husband Jay-Z, Kendrick Lamar, and Serena Williams for the last show.[170] The tour went on to win Tour of the Year at the 44th American Music Awards.[171]

Beyoncé performing during The Formation World Tour in 2016. The tour grossed $256 million from 49 sold-out shows.
In April 2016, Beyoncé released a teaser clip for a project called Lemonade. A one-hour film which aired on HBO on April 23, a corresponding album with the same title was released on the same day exclusively on Tidal.[172] Lemonade debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200, making Beyoncé the first act in Billboard history to have their first six studio albums debut atop the chart; she broke a record previously tied with DMX in 2013.[173] With all 12 tracks of Lemonade debuting on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, Beyoncé also became the first female act to chart 12 or more songs at the same time.[174] Lemonade was streamed 115 million times through Tidal, setting a record for the most-streamed album in a single week by a female artist in history.[175] It was 2016's third highest-selling album in the U.S. with 1.554 million copies sold in that time period within the country[176] as well as the best-selling album worldwide with global sales of 2.5 million throughout the year.[177]

Lemonade became the most critically acclaimed work of her career.[178] Several music publications included the album among the best of 2016, including Rolling Stone, which listed Lemonade at number one.[179] The album's visuals were nominated in 11 categories at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards, the most ever received by Beyoncé in a single year, and went on to win 8 awards, including Video of the Year for "Formation".[180][181] The eight wins made Beyoncé the most-awarded artist in the history of the VMAs (24), surpassing Madonna (20).[182] Beyoncé occupied the sixth place for Time magazine's 2016 Person of the Year.[183]

In January 2017, it was announced that Beyoncé would headline the Coachella Music and Arts Festival. This would have made Beyoncé only the second female headliner of the festival since it was founded in 1999.[184] It was later announced on February 23, 2017, that Beyoncé would no longer be able to perform at the festival due to doctor's concerns regarding her pregnancy. The festival owners announced that she would instead headline the 2018 festival.[185] Upon the announcement of Beyoncé's departure from the festival lineup, ticket prices dropped by 12%.[186] At the 59th Grammy Awards in February 2017, Lemonade led the nominations with nine, including Album, Record, and Song of the Year for Lemonade and "Formation" respectively.[187] and ultimately won two, Best Urban Contemporary Album for Lemonade and Best Music Video for "Formation".[188]

In September 2017, Beyoncé collaborated with J Balvin and Willy William, to release a remix of the song "Mi Gente". Beyoncé donated all proceeds from the song to hurricane charities for those affected by Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in Texas, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and other Caribbean Islands.[189] On November 10, Eminem released "Walk on Water" featuring Beyoncé as the lead single from his album Revival. On November 30, Ed Sheeran announced that Beyoncé would feature on the remix to his song "Perfect".[190] "Perfect Duet" was released on December 1, 2017. The song reached number-one in the United States, becoming Beyoncé's sixth song of her solo career to do so.[191]

2018–2021: Everything Is Love and The Lion King
On January 4, 2018, the music video of Beyoncé and Jay-Z's 4:44 collaboration, "Family Feud" was released.[192] It was directed by Ava DuVernay. On March 1, 2018, DJ Khaled released "Top Off" as the first single from his forthcoming album Father of Asahd featuring Beyoncé, husband Jay-Z, and Future.[193] On March 5, 2018, a joint tour with Knowles's husband Jay-Z, was leaked on Facebook.[194] Information about the tour was later taken down. The couple announced the joint tour officially as On the Run II Tour on March 12[195] and simultaneously released a trailer for the tour on YouTube.[196]

On April 14, 2018, Beyoncé played the first of two weekends as the headlining act of the Coachella Music Festival. Her performance of April 14, attended by 125,000 festival-goers, was immediately praised, with multiple media outlets describing it as historic. The performance became the most-tweeted-about performance of weekend one, as well as the most-watched live Coachella performance and the most-watched live performance on YouTube of all time. The show paid tribute to black culture, specifically historically black colleges and universities and featured a live band with over 100 dancers. Destiny's Child also reunited during the show.[197][198]

On June 6, 2018, Beyoncé and husband Jay-Z kicked-off the On the Run II Tour in Cardiff, United Kingdom. Ten days later, at their final London performance, the pair unveiled Everything Is Love, their joint studio album, credited under the name The Carters, and initially available exclusively on Tidal. The pair also released the video for the album's lead single, "Apeshit", on Beyoncé's official YouTube channel.[199][200] Everything Is Love received generally positive reviews,[201] and debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200, with 123,000 album-equivalent units, of which 70,000 were pure album sales.[202] On December 2, 2018, Beyoncé alongside Jay-Z headlined the Global Citizen Festival: Mandela 100 which was held at FNB Stadium in Johannesburg, South Africa.[203] Their 2-hour performance had concepts similar to the On the Run II Tour and Beyoncé was praised for her outfits, which paid tribute to Africa's diversity.[204]

Beyoncé at The Lion King European premiere in 2019
Homecoming: A Film by Beyoncé, a documentary and concert film focusing on Beyoncé's historic 2018 Coachella performances, was released by Netflix on April 17, 2019.[205][206] The film was accompanied by the surprise live album Homecoming: The Live Album.[207] It was later reported that Beyoncé and Netflix had signed a $60 million deal to produce three different projects, one of which is Homecoming.[208] Homecoming: A Film by Beyoncé received six nominations at the 71st Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards.[209]

Beyoncé starred as the voice of Nala in the remake The Lion King, which was released in July 2019.[210] Beyoncé is featured on the film's soundtrack, released on July 11, 2019, with a remake of the song "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" alongside Donald Glover, Billy Eichner and Seth Rogen, which was originally composed by Elton John.[211] An original song from the film by Beyoncé, "Spirit", was released as the lead single from both the soundtrack and The Lion King: The Gift – a companion album released alongside the film, produced and curated by Beyoncé.[212][213]

Beyoncé called The Lion King: The Gift a "sonic cinema". She stated that the album is influenced by everything from R&B, pop, hip hop and Afro Beat.[212] The songs were produced by African producers, which Beyoncé said was because "authenticity and heart were important to [her]", since the film is set in Africa.[212] In September of the same year, a documentary chronicling the development, production and early music video filming of The Lion King: The Gift entitled "Beyoncé Presents: Making The Gift" was aired on ABC.[214]

In March 2020, a photograph Beyoncé captured of her swimming pool was used as the album cover for rapper Jay Electronica's highly anticipated debut album A Written Testimony.[215] In April of the same year, Beyoncé was featured on the remix of Megan Thee Stallion's song "Savage", marking her first music release for the year.[216] The song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, marking Beyoncé's eleventh song to do so across all acts.[217] On June 19, 2020, Beyoncé released the nonprofit charity single "Black Parade".[218] On June 23, she followed up the release of its studio version with an a cappella version exclusively on Tidal.[219] Black Is King, a visual album based on the music of The Lion King: The Gift, premiered globally on Disney+ on July 31, 2020. Produced by Disney and Parkwood Entertainment, the film was written, directed and executively produced by Beyoncé. The film was described by Disney as "a celebratory memoir for the world on the Black experience".[220] Beyoncé received the most nominations (9) at the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards and the most awards (4), which made her the most-awarded singer, most-awarded female artist, and second-most-awarded artist in Grammy history.[221]

In 2021, Beyoncé wrote and recorded a song titled "Be Alive" for the biographical drama film King Richard.[222] She received her first Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song at the 94th Academy Awards for the song, alongside co-writer Dixson.[223]

2022–present: Three-act project

Beyoncé performing at the Renaissance World Tour
On March 27, 2022, Beyoncé performed "Be Alive" at the 94th Academy Awards. Choreographed by friend and past collaborator Fatima Robinson, Beyoncé was applauded for choosing to perform on the Compton tennis courts Venus and Serena Williams practiced on in their childhood instead of at the venue.[224][225]

On June 9, 2022, Beyoncé removed her profile pictures across various social media platforms, causing speculation that she would be releasing new music.[226] Days later, Beyoncé caused further speculation via her nonprofit BeyGood's Twitter account hinting at her upcoming seventh studio album.[227] On June 15, 2022, Beyoncé officially announced her seventh studio album would be titled Renaissance.[228] The lead single of Renaissance, "Break My Soul", was released on June 20, 2022.[229] The album was released on July 29, 2022.[230][231] "Break My Soul" became Beyoncé's 20th top ten single on the Billboard Hot 100, and in doing so, Beyoncé joined Paul McCartney and Michael Jackson as the only artists in Hot 100 history to achieve at least twenty top tens as a solo artist and ten as a member of a group.[8]

As Renaissance was released, Beyoncé announced the album was the first installment of a trilogy she conceived and recorded over three years during the COVID-19 pandemic, a time she found to be her "most creative [period]."[232][228] The three recorded projects are designated into acts under Roman numerals.[233] Upon release, Renaissance received universal acclaim from critics.[234] Renaissance debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart, and in doing so, Beyoncé became the first female artist to have her first seven studio albums debut at number one in the United States.[235] "Break My Soul" concurrently rose to number-one on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the twelfth song to do so across her career discography.[236]

The song "Heated," which was co-written with Canadian rapper Drake, originally included the lyrics "Spazzin' on that ass / spazz on that ass". Critics, including a number of disability charities and activists, argued that the word "spaz" represented a derogatory term for spastic diplegia, a form of cerebral palsy. In response, in August 2022, a representative for Beyoncé issued a statement and explained that "The word, not used intentionally in a harmful way, will be replaced".[237][238]

On January 21, 2023, Beyoncé performed in Dubai at a private show.[239] The performance, which was her first full concert in more than four years, was delivered to an audience of influencers and journalists.[240] Beyoncé was reportedly paid $24 million to perform.[241] Beyoncé faced criticism for her decision to perform in the United Arab Emirates where homosexuality is illegal.[241][240][242] On February 1, Beyoncé announced the Renaissance World Tour with dates in North America and Europe,[243] becoming for a short-span the highest-grossing tour by a female artist.[244] On July 28, Beyoncé appeared on "Delresto (Echoes)", the second single from rapper Travis Scott's album Utopia, eventually becoming her 100th career appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 chart (encompassing Destiny's Child, her solo career, and musical duo The Carters).[245] On November 30, 2023, Beyoncé released documentary concert film Renaissance: A Film by Beyoncé written, directed, and produced by her in collaboration with film distributor AMC Theatres. The film chronicles the development and execution of Beyoncé's Renaissance World Tour, and contained new song "My House" in the end credits.

In February 2024, Beyoncé launched her hair care brand Cécred.[246] On February 11, 2024, immediately following a partner commercial with Verizon for the Super Bowl LVIII, she announced the second installment of her trilogy project and released its first two songs, "Texas Hold 'Em" and "16 Carriages".[247] "Texas Hold 'Em" became her highest chart debut in her career, her ninth solo number-one and her thirteenth across all credits on the Billboard Hot 100. On March 12, 2024, she announced the album's title, Cowboy Carter.[248][249] A country and gospel-tinged record, it was released on March 29 to universal acclaim from critics, and includes collaborations with artists including Tanner Adell and her daughter Rumi Carter, Miley Cyrus, Tiera Kennedy, Willie Jones, Post Malone, Linda Martell, Willie Nelson, Shaboozey, Brittney Spencer, Dolly Parton, and Reyna Roberts.[250]

Artistry
Voice and musical style
With "Single Ladies", clearly I'd just gotten married, and people want to get married every day – then there was the whole Justin Timberlake thing [recreating the video] on Saturday Night Live, and it was also the year YouTube blew up. With "Irreplaceable", the aggressive lyrics, the acoustic guitar, and the 808 drum machine – those things don't typically go together, and it sounded fresh. "Crazy in Love" was another one of those classic moments in pop culture that none of us expected. I asked Jay to get on the song the night before I had to turn my album in – thank God he did. It still never gets old, no matter how many times I sing it.

—Beyoncé[251]

Critics have described Beyoncé's voice as being mezzo-soprano.[252][253] Jody Rosen highlights her tone and timbre as particularly distinctive, describing her voice as "one of the most compelling instruments in popular music".[254] Her vocal abilities mean she is identified as the centerpiece of Destiny's Child.[255] Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that her voice is "velvety yet tart, with an insistent flutter and reserves of soul belting".[256] Rosen notes that the hip hop era highly influenced Beyoncé's unique rhythmic vocal style, but also finds her quite traditionalist in her use of balladry, gospel and falsetto.[254]

Other critics praise her range and power, with Chris Richards of The Washington Post saying she was "capable of punctuating any beat with goose-bump-inducing whispers or full-bore diva-roars."[257] On the 2023 Rolling Stone's list of the 200 Greatest Singers of all time, Beyoncé ranked at number 8, with the publication noting that "in [her] voice lies the entire history of Black music".[258]

Beyoncé's music is generally R&B,[259][260] pop[259][261] and hip hop[262] but she also incorporates soul and funk into her songs. 4 demonstrated Beyoncé's exploration of 1990s-style R&B, as well as further use of soul and hip hop than compared to previous releases.[251] While she almost exclusively releases English songs, Beyoncé recorded several Spanish songs for Irreemplazable (re-recordings of songs from B'Day for a Spanish-language audience), and the re-release of B'Day. To record these, Beyoncé was coached phonetically by American record producer Rudy Perez.[263]

Songwriting
Beyoncé has received co-writing credits for most of her songs.[264] In regards to the way she approaches collaborative songwriting, Beyoncé explained: "I love being around great writers because I'm finding that a lot of the things I want to say, I don't articulate as good as maybe Amanda Ghost, so I want to keep collaborating with writers, and I love classics and I want to make sure years from now the song is still something that's relevant."[265] Her early songs with Destiny's Child were personally driven and female-empowerment themed compositions like "Independent Women" and "Survivor", but after the start of her relationship with Jay-Z, she transitioned to more man-tending anthems such as "Cater 2 U".[266]

Beyoncé's songwriting process is also known for combining parts of different tracks, resulting in alteration of song structures. Sia, who co-wrote "Pretty Hurts", called Beyoncé "very Frankenstein when she comes to songs";[267] Diana Gordon, who co-wrote "Don't Hurt Yourself" called her a "scientist of songs";[268] Caroline Polachek who co-wrote "No Angel", called her a "genius writer and producer for this reason. She's so good at seeing connections."[269]

In 2001, she became the first Black woman and second female lyricist to win the Pop Songwriter of the Year award at the ASCAP Pop Music Awards.[17][270] Beyoncé was the third woman to have writing credits on three number-one songs ("Irreplaceable", "Grillz" and "Check on It") in the same year, after Carole King in 1971 and Mariah Carey in 1991. She is tied with American lyricist Diane Warren at third with nine songwriting credits on number-one singles.[271] The latter wrote her song "I Was Here" for 4, which was motivated by the September 11 attacks.[272] In May 2011, Billboard magazine listed Beyoncé at number 17 on their list of the Top 20 Hot 100 Songwriters for having co-written eight singles that hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. She was one of only three women on that list, along with Alicia Keys and Taylor Swift.[273]

Beyoncé has received criticism, including from journalists and musicians, for the extensive writing credits on her songs.[264] The controversy surrounding her songwriting credits began with interviews in which she attributed herself as the songwriter for songs in which she was a co-writer[274] or for which her contributions were marginal.[264] In a cover story for Vanity Fair in 2005, she claimed to have "written" several number-one songs for Destiny's Child, contrary to the credits, which list her as a co-writer among others.[274] During a 2007 interview with Barbara Walters, she claimed to have conceived the musical idea for the Destiny's Child song "Bootylicious",[275] which provoked the song's producer Rob Fusari to call her father and then-manager Mathew Knowles in protest over the claim. In 2010, Fusari told Billboard: "[Knowles] explained to me, in a nice way, he said, 'People don't want to hear about Rob Fusari, producer from Livingston, N.J. No offense, but that's not what sells records. What sells records is people believing that the artist is everything.'"[276] However, in an interview for Entertainment Weekly in 2016, Fusari said Beyoncé "had the 'Bootylicious' concept in her head. That was totally her. She knew what she wanted to say. It was very urban pop angle that they were taking on the record."[277]

Production
I am really passionate about all of the steps [during] the production [...] I love to stack vocals, and I love to create my own little Oreo with arrangements, sometimes it can be thousands of vocals [and then] I go back and then kind of piece things together, because usually the songs are way too long [...] I go back and edit the structure of the song. [I] make sure that [...] every section has an intention, so that takes months. [...] I hear certain elements of things that go with things that are opposites. I am rarely happy with one track, it's usually four or five things put together that again don't really go together. I am so excited when I'm able to adjust the tempo and key and mute certain elements that don't complement and put opposites together. Sometimes it's just like the EQ of a synth or the warmth of a bass or the distortion of a bass that's on a different song and I can hear like, 'Ah! That's exactly what is missing to make the track full and complete!'

— Beyoncé in pre-recorded audio speech at 'Club Renaissance' 2022 party.[278]
Beyoncé's collaborators frequently mention her talent and involvement in the record production of her songs,[279][280] sometimes describing her as a genius in the skill.[281] She is known to have favorite saturation and distortion plug‑ins, intentionality about stereo imaging and concentration on individual elements of her songs as a "focal point" in production.[282]

Influences

Beyoncé's major influences include Michael Jackson (left) and Tina Turner (right).
Beyoncé names Michael Jackson as her major musical influence.[283][284] Aged five, Beyoncé attended her first ever concert where Jackson performed and she claims to have realized her purpose.[285] When she presented him with a tribute award at the World Music Awards in 2006, Beyoncé said, "if it wasn't for Michael Jackson, I would never ever have performed."[286] Beyoncé was heavily influenced by Tina Turner, and once said "Tina Turner is someone that I admire, because she made her strength feminine and sexy".[287][288]

She admires Diana Ross as an "all-around entertainer",[289] and Whitney Houston, who she said "inspired me to get up there and do what she did."[290][291] Beyoncé cited Madonna as an influence "not only for her musical style, but also for her business sense",[292] saying that she wanted to "follow in the footsteps of Madonna and be a powerhouse and have my own empire."[293] She also credits Mariah Carey's singing and her song "Vision of Love" as influencing her to begin practicing vocal runs as a child.[294][295] Her other musical influences include Rachelle Ferrell,[296] Aaliyah,[297][298] Janet Jackson,[299][300] Prince,[301] Lauryn Hill,[289] Sade Adu,[302] Donna Summer,[303] Fairuz,[304][305] Mary J. Blige,[306] Selena,[307] Anita Baker, and Toni Braxton.[289]

The feminism and female empowerment themes on Beyoncé's second solo album B'Day were inspired by her role in Dreamgirls[308] and by singer Josephine Baker.[309] Beyoncé paid homage to Baker by performing "Déjà Vu" at the 2006 Fashion Rocks concert wearing Baker's trademark mini-hula skirt embellished with fake bananas.[310] Beyoncé's third solo album, I Am... Sasha Fierce, was inspired by Jay-Z and especially by Etta James, whose "boldness" inspired Beyoncé to explore other musical genres and styles.[311] Her fourth solo album, 4, was inspired by Fela Kuti, 1990s R&B, Earth, Wind & Fire, DeBarge, Lionel Richie, Teena Marie, The Jackson 5, New Edition, Adele, Florence and the Machine, and Prince.[251]

Beyoncé has stated that she is personally inspired by Michelle Obama (the 44th First Lady of the United States), saying "she proves you can do it all",[312] and has described Oprah Winfrey as "the definition of inspiration and a strong woman."[289] She has also discussed how Jay-Z is a continuing inspiration to her, both with what she describes as his lyrical genius and in the obstacles he has overcome in his life.[313] Beyoncé has expressed admiration for the artist Jean-Michel Basquiat, posting in a letter "what I find in the work of Jean-Michel Basquiat, I search for in every day in music ... he is lyrical and raw".[314][315] Beyoncé also cited Cher as a fashion inspiration.[316]

Music videos and stage

Beyoncé performing during the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards
In 2006, Beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band Suga Mama (also the name of a song on B'Day) which includes bassists, drummers, guitarists, horn players, keyboardists and percussionists.[317] Her background singers, The Mamas, consist of Montina Cooper-Donnell, Crystal Collins and Tiffany Moniqué Riddick. They made their debut appearance at the 2006 BET Awards and re-appeared in the music videos for "Irreplaceable" and "Green Light".[263] The band have supported Beyoncé in most subsequent live performances, including her 2007 concert tour The Beyoncé Experience, I Am... Tour (2009–2010), The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour (2013–2014) and The Formation World Tour (2016).

Beyoncé has received praise for her stage presence and voice during live performances. According to Barbara Ellen of The Guardian, Beyoncé is the most in-charge female artist she's seen onstage.[318] Similarly, Alice Jones of The Independent wrote she "takes her role as entertainer so seriously she's almost too good."[319] The ex-President of Def Jam L.A. Reid has described Beyoncé as the greatest entertainer alive.[320] Jim Farber of the Daily News and Stephanie Classen of The StarPhoenix both praised her strong voice and her stage presence.[321][322] Beyoncé's stage outfits have been met with criticism from many countries, such as Malaysia, where she has postponed or cancelled performances due to the country's strict laws banning revealing costumes.[323]

Beyoncé has worked with numerous directors for her music videos throughout her career, including Melina Matsoukas, Jonas Åkerlund, and Jake Nava. Bill Condon, director of Beauty and the Beast, stated that the Lemonade visuals in particular served as inspiration for his film, commenting, "You look at Beyoncé's brilliant movie Lemonade, this genre is taking on so many different forms ... I do think that this very old-school break-out-into-song traditional musical is something that people understand again and really want."[324]

Alter ego
Described as being "sexy, seductive and provocative" when performing on stage, Beyoncé has said that she originally created the alter ego "Sasha Fierce" to keep that stage persona separate from who she really is. She described Sasha Fierce as being "too aggressive, too strong, too sassy [and] too sexy", stating, "I'm not like her in real life at all."[325] Sasha was conceived during the making of "Crazy in Love", and Beyoncé introduced her with the release of her 2008 album, I Am... Sasha Fierce. In February 2010, she announced in an interview with Allure magazine that she was comfortable enough with herself to no longer need Sasha Fierce.[326] However, Beyoncé announced in May 2012 that she would bring her back for her Revel Presents: Beyoncé Live shows later that month.[327]

Miscellaneous
Beyoncé has been documented pursuing many other understated passions and talents. Some of these include canvas painting,[328] video editing,[329] poetry,[330] scriptwriting,[331] lighting design,[332] photography,[215] and cultural historiography.[333]

Public image
A woman waves to the crowd on a red-carpet
Beyoncé at the premiere of her 2006 film Dreamgirls
Beyoncé has been described as having sex appeal, with music journalist Touré writing that since the release of Dangerously in Love, she has "become a crossover sex symbol".[334] When off stage, Beyoncé says that while she likes to dress sexily, her onstage dress "is absolutely for the stage".[335] Due to her curves and the term's catchiness, in the 2000s, the media often used the term "bootylicious" (a portmanteau of the words "booty" and "delicious") to describe Beyoncé,[336][337] the term popularized by the single of the same name by her group Destiny's Child. In 2006, it was added to the Oxford English Dictionary.[338]

In September 2010, Beyoncé made her runway modelling debut at Tom Ford's Spring/Summer 2011 fashion show.[339] She was named the "World's Most Beautiful Woman" by People[340] and the "Hottest Female Singer of All Time" by Complex in 2012.[341] In January 2013, GQ placed her on its cover, featuring her atop its "100 Sexiest Women of the 21st Century" list.[342][343] VH1 listed her at number 1 on its 100 Sexiest Artists list.[344] Several wax figures of Beyoncé are found at Madame Tussauds Wax Museums in major cities around the world, including New York City,[345] Berlin,[346] Singapore,[347] Tokyo,[348] London,[349] Washington, D.C.,[350] Amsterdam,[351][352] Bangkok,[353] Hollywood[354] Sydney,[355] Istanbul,[356] Blackpool,[357] Las Vegas,[358] Orlando,[359] San Francisco,[360] Nashville,[361] Budapest,[362] Vienna,[363] Shanghai[364] and Delhi.[365]

The latest was unveiled by Madame Tussauds New York on July 27, 2023, showcasing Beyoncé's look from her historic 2018 Coachella performance. Debuted at Edge, New York City's highest outdoor sky deck, the figure features Beyoncé in a Balmain bodysuit and Nefertiti-inspired headpiece, commemorating her as the first Black woman to headline the festival. This addition involved extensive collaboration with the original designers, requiring six months to capture Beyoncé's iconic style precisely.[366][367]

According to Italian fashion designer Roberto Cavalli, Beyoncé uses different fashion styles to work with her music while performing.[368] Her mother co-wrote a book, published in 2002, titled Destiny's Style,[369] an account of how fashion affected the trio's success.[370] The B'Day Anthology Video Album showed many instances of fashion-oriented footage, depicting classic to contemporary wardrobe styles.[371] In 2007, Beyoncé was featured on the cover of the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue, becoming the second African American woman after model and television personality Tyra Banks,[372] and People magazine recognized Beyoncé as the best-dressed celebrity.[373]

Beyoncé has been named "Queen Bey" from publications over the years. The term is a reference to the common phrase "queen bee", a term used for the leader of a group of females. The nickname also refers to the Queen bee of a beehive, with her fan base being named "The BeyHive". The BeyHive was previously titled "The Beyontourage", (a portmanteau of Beyoncé and entourage), but was changed after online petitions on Twitter and online news reports during competitions.[374]

In 2006, the animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), criticized Beyoncé for wearing and using fur in her clothing line House of Deréon.[375] Emmett Price, a professor of music at Northeastern University, wrote in 2007 that he thinks race plays a role in many criticisms of Beyoncé's image, saying white celebrities who dress similarly do not attract as many comments.[376] In 2008, the French personal care company L'Oréal was accused of whitening her skin in their Feria hair color advertisements, responding that "it is categorically untrue",[377][378] and in 2013, Beyoncé herself criticized H&M for their proposed "retouching" of promotional images of her, and according to Vogue requested that only "natural pictures be used".[379]

Beyoncé has been a vocal advocate for the Black Lives Matter movement. The release of "Formation" on February 6, 2016, saw her celebrate her Sub-Saharan Black African ancestry, with the song's music video featuring pro-black imagery and a shot of wall graffiti that says "Stop shooting us". The day after the song's release, she performed it at the 2016 Super Bowl halftime show with back up dancers dressed to represent the Black Panther Party. This incited criticism from conservative politicians and police officers, with some police boycotting Beyoncé's then upcoming Formation World Tour.[380] Beyoncé responded to the backlash by releasing tour merchandise that said "Boycott Beyoncé",[381][382][383] and later clarified her sentiment, saying: "Anyone who perceives my message as anti-police is completely mistaken. I have so much admiration and respect for officers and the families of officers who sacrifice themselves to keep us safe," Beyoncé said. "But let's be clear: I am against police brutality and injustice. Those are two separate things."[384]

Personal life
Marriage and children
A woman stands next to a man who is performing using a microphone
Beyoncé performing on the I Am... Tour with Jay-Z, whom she married in 2008
In 2002, Beyoncé and Jay-Z collaborated on the song "'03 Bonnie & Clyde",[385] which appeared on his seventh album The Blueprint 2: The Gift & The Curse (2002).[386] Beyoncé appeared as Jay-Z's girlfriend in the music video for the song, fueling speculation about their relationship.[387] On April 4, 2008, Beyoncé and Jay-Z married without publicity.[388] As of April 2014, the couple had sold a combined 300 million records together.[162] They are known for their private relationship, although they have appeared to become more relaxed since 2013.[389] Both have acknowledged difficulty that arose in their marriage after Jay-Z had an affair.[390][391]

Beyoncé miscarried around 2010 or 2011, describing it as "the saddest thing" she had ever endured.[392] She returned to the studio and wrote music to cope with the loss. In April 2011, Beyoncé and Jay-Z traveled to Paris to shoot the album cover for 4, and she unexpectedly became pregnant in Paris.[393] In August, the couple attended the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, at which Beyoncé performed "Love On Top" and ended the performance by revealing she was pregnant.[394] Her appearance helped that year's MTV Video Music Awards become the most-watched broadcast in MTV history, pulling in 12.4 million viewers;[395] the announcement was listed in Guinness World Records for "most tweets per second recorded for a single event" on Twitter,[396] receiving 8,868 tweets per second[397] and "Beyonce pregnant" was the most Googled phrase the week of August 29, 2011.[398] On January 7, 2012, Beyoncé gave birth to a daughter, Blue Ivy, at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City.[399]

Following the release of Lemonade, which included the single "Sorry", in 2016, speculations arose about Jay-Z's alleged infidelity with a mistress referred to as "Becky". Jon Pareles in The New York Times pointed out that many of the accusations were "aimed specifically and recognizably" at him.[400] Similarly, Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone noted the lines "Suck on my balls, I've had enough" were an "unmistakable hint" that the lyrics revolve around Jay-Z.[401]

On February 1, 2017, she revealed on her Instagram account that she was expecting twins. Her announcement gained over 6.3 million likes within eight hours, breaking the world record for the most liked image on the website at the time.[402] On July 13, 2017, Beyoncé uploaded the first image of herself and the twins onto her Instagram account, confirming their birth date as a month prior, on June 13, 2017,[403] with the post becoming the second most liked on Instagram, behind her own pregnancy announcement.[404] The twins, a daughter named Rumi and a son named Sir, were born at Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center in California via caesarean section. She wrote of her pregnancy and its aftermath in the September 2018 issue of Vogue, in which she had full control of the cover, shot at Hammerwood Park by photographer Tyler Mitchell.[405][406]

Politics
Beyoncé performed "America the Beautiful" at President Barack Obama's 2009 presidential inauguration, as well as "At Last" during the first inaugural dance at the Neighborhood Ball two days later.[407] The couple held a fundraiser at Jay-Z's 40/40 Club in Manhattan for President Obama's 2012 presidential campaign[408] which raised $4 million.[409] Beyoncé voted for Obama in the 2012 presidential election.[410] She performed the American national anthem "The Star-Spangled Banner" at his second inauguration in January 2013.[141]

The Washington Post reported in May 2015, that Beyoncé attended a major celebrity fundraiser for 2016 presidential nominee Hillary Clinton.[411] She also headlined for Clinton in a concert held the weekend before Election Day the next year. In this performance, Beyoncé and her entourage of backup dancers wore pantsuits; a clear allusion to Clinton's frequent dress-of-choice. The backup dancers also wore "I'm with her" tee shirts, the campaign slogan for Clinton. In a brief speech at this performance Beyoncé said, "I want my daughter to grow up seeing a woman lead our country and knowing that her possibilities are limitless."[412] She endorsed the bid of Beto O'Rourke during the 2018 United States Senate election in Texas.[413]

Activism
A woman performing using a microphone
Beyoncé has conducted several fundraising and donation campaigns during her tours
In 2013, Beyoncé stated in an interview in Vogue that she considered herself to be "a modern-day feminist".[414] She would later align herself more publicly with the movement, sampling "We should all be feminists", a speech delivered by Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie at a TEDx talk in April 2013, in her song "Flawless", released later that year.[415] The next year she performed live at the MTV Video Awards in front a giant backdrop reading "Feminist".[416] Her self-identification incited a circulation of opinions and debate about whether her feminism is aligned with older, more established feminist ideals. Annie Lennox, celebrated artist and feminist advocate, referred to Beyoncé's use of her word feminist as 'feminist lite'.[417]

Adichie responded with "her type of feminism is not mine, as it is the kind that, at the same time, gives quite a lot of space to the necessity of men."[418] Adichie expands upon what "feminist lite" means to her, referring that "more troubling is the idea, in Feminism Lite, that men are naturally superior but should be expected to 'treat women well'" and "we judge powerful women more harshly than we judge powerful men. And Feminism Lite enables this."[419]

Beyoncé responded about her intent by utilizing the definition of feminist with her platform was to "give clarity to the true meaning" behind it. She says to understand what being a feminist is, "it's very simple. It's someone who believes in equal rights for men and women." She advocated to provide equal opportunities for young boys and girls, men and women must begin to understand the double standards that remain persistent in our societies and the issue must be illuminated in effort to start making changes.[420]

She has also contributed to the Ban Bossy campaign, which uses TV and social media to encourage leadership in girls.[421] Following Beyoncé's public identification as a feminist, the sexualized nature of her performances and the fact that she championed her marriage was questioned.[422]

In December 2012, Beyoncé along with a variety of other celebrities teamed up and produced a video campaign for "Demand A Plan", a bipartisan effort by a group of 950 U.S. mayors and others[423] designed to influence the federal government into rethinking its gun control laws, following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.[424] Beyoncé publicly endorsed same-sex marriage on March 26, 2013, after the Supreme Court debate on California's Proposition 8.[425] She spoke against North Carolina's Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act, a bill passed (and later repealed) that discriminated against the LGBT community in public places in a statement during her concert in Raleigh as part of the Formation World Tour in 2016.[426]

She has condemned police brutality against black Americans. She and Jay-Z attended a rally in 2013 in response to the acquittal of George Zimmerman for the killing of Trayvon Martin.[427] The film for her sixth album Lemonade included the mothers of Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown and Eric Garner, holding pictures of their sons in the video for "Freedom".[428] In a 2016 interview with Elle, Beyoncé responded to the controversy surrounding her song "Formation" which was perceived to be critical of the police. She clarified, "I am against police brutality and injustice. Those are two separate things. If celebrating my roots and culture during Black History Month made anyone uncomfortable, those feelings were there long before a video and long before me".[429]

In February 2017, Beyoncé spoke out against the withdrawal of protections for transgender students in public schools by Donald Trump's presidential administration. Posting a link to the 100 Days of Kindness campaign on her Facebook page, Beyoncé voiced her support for transgender youth and joined a roster of celebrities who spoke out against Trump's decision.[430]

Wealth
Forbes magazine began reporting on Beyoncé's earnings in 2008, calculating that the $80 million earned between June 2007 to June 2008, for her music, tour, films and clothing line made her the world's best-paid music personality at the time, above Madonna and Celine Dion.[431][432] It placed her fourth on the Celebrity 100 list in 2009[433] and ninth on the "Most Powerful Women in the World" list in 2010.[434] The following year, the magazine placed her eighth on the "Best-Paid Celebrities Under 30" list, having earned $35 million in the past year for her clothing line and endorsement deals. In 2012, Forbes placed Beyoncé at number 16 on the Celebrity 100 list, twelve places lower than three years ago yet still having earned $40 million in the past year for her album 4, clothing line and endorsement deals.[435][436]

In 2012, Beyoncé and Jay-Z placed at number one on the "World's Highest-Paid Celebrity Couples", for collectively earning $78 million.[437] The couple made it into the previous year's Guinness World Records as the "highest-earning power couple" for collectively earning $122 million in 2009.[438] For the years 2009 to 2011, Beyoncé earned an average of $70 million per year, and earned $40 million in 2012.[439] In 2013, Beyoncé's endorsements of Pepsi and H&M made her and Jay-Z the world's first billion-dollar couple in the music industry.[440] That year, Beyoncé was published as the fourth-most-powerful celebrity in the Forbes rankings.[441]

In June 2014, Beyoncé ranked at number one on the Forbes Celebrity 100 list, earning an estimated $115 million throughout June 2013 – June 2014. This in turn was the first time she had topped the Celebrity 100 list as well as being her highest yearly earnings to date.[442] In 2016, Beyoncé ranked at number 34 on the Celebrity 100 list with earnings of $54 million. She and Jay-Z also topped the highest-paid celebrity couple list, with combined earnings of $107.5 million.[443]

Beyoncé is one of the wealthiest musical artists. As of 2018, Forbes calculated her net worth to be $355 million, and in June of the same year, ranked her as the 35th-highest-earning celebrity, with annual earnings of $60 million. This tied Beyoncé with Madonna as the only two female artists to earn more than $100 million within a single year twice.[444][445] As a couple, Beyoncé and Jay-Z have a combined net worth of $1.16 billion.[446] In July 2017, Billboard announced that Beyoncé was the highest-paid musician of 2016, with an estimated total of $62.1 million.[447] By December 2023, Forbes estimated Beyoncé's net worth to be $800 million.[448]

In 2023, the couple bought a house in Malibu, California, designed by the architect Tadao Ando, for $200 million. It established a record for the most expensive residence sold in California.[449]

Legacy
Main articles: Cultural impact of Beyoncé and Destiny's Child § Legacy
A woman is shown leaning back and singing into a microphone, surrounded by smoke
Beyoncé performing during her I Am... Tour in 2009
Beyoncé's success has led to her becoming a cultural icon and earning her the nickname "Queen Bey".[450] Constance Grady wrote for Vox, "The transformation of Beyoncé from well-liked pop star to cultural icon came in three phases, punctuated by the self-titled Beyoncé album of 2013, 2016's Lemonade, and 2018's Homecoming concert at Coachella."[451] In The New Yorker, music critic Jody Rosen described Beyoncé as "the most important and compelling popular musician of the twenty-first century ... the result, the logical end point, of a century-plus of pop."[452] She topped NPR list of the "21st Century's Most Influential Women Musicians".[453] James Clear, in his book Atomic Habits (2018), draws a parallel between Beyoncé's success and the dramatic transformations in modern society: "In the last one hundred years, we have seen the rise of the car, the airplane, the television, the personal computer, the internet, the smartphone, and Beyoncé."[454] The Observer named her Artist of the Decade (2000s) in 2009.[455]

Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Alex Suskind opined that Beyoncé was the decade's (2010s) defining pop star, stating "no one dominated music in the 2010s like Queen Bey", explaining that her "songs, album rollouts, stage presence, social justice initiatives, and disruptive public relations strategy have influenced the way we've viewed music since 2010."[456] Based on Billboard rankings of chart success and sales, Beyonce was ranked 9th on the Top R&B and Hip Hop artists of the 2010s decade chart, behind the likes of Drake, Rihanna, Chris Brown, Nicki Minaj, Post Malone, The Weeknd, Kendrick Lamar and Lil Wayne in ranks 1 through 8, respectively.[457] British publication NME also shared similar thoughts on her impact in the 2010s, including Beyoncé on their list of the "10 Artists Who Defined The Decade".[458] In 2018, Rolling Stone included her on its Millennial 100 list.[459]

Music critics have often credited Beyoncé with the invention of the staccato rap-singing style that has since dominated pop, R&B, and rap music. Lakin Starling of The Fader wrote that Beyoncé's innovative implementation of the delivery style on Destiny's Child's 1999 album The Writing's on the Wall invented a new form of R&B.[460] The staccato rap-singing style continued to be used in the music industry in the late 2010s and early 2020s; Aaron Williams of Uproxx described Beyoncé as the "primary pioneer" of the rapping style that dominates the music industry today, with many rappers implementing Beyoncé's rap-singing.[461] Michael Eric Dyson agrees, saying in 2019 that Beyoncé "changed the whole genre" and has become the "godmother" of mumble rappers, who use the staccato rap-singing cadence. Dyson added: "She doesn't get credit for the remarkable way in which she changed the musical vocabulary of contemporary art."[462]

Beyoncé has been credited with reviving the album as an art form in an era dominated by singles and streaming. This started with her 2011 album 4; while mainstream R&B artists were forgoing albums-led R&B in favor of singles-led EDM, Beyoncé aimed to place the focus back on albums as an art form and re-establish R&B as a mainstream concern.[463] This remained a focus of Beyoncé's, and in 2013, she made her eponymous album only available to purchase as a full album on iTunes, rather than being able to purchase individual tracks or consume the album via streaming. Kaitlin Menza of Marie Claire wrote that this made listeners "experience the album as one whole sonic experience, the way people used to, noting the musical and lyrical themes".[464]

Jamieson Cox for The Verge described how Beyoncé's 2013 album initiated a gradual trend of albums becoming more cohesive and self-referential, and this phenomenon reached its endpoint with Lemonade, which set "a new standard for pop storytelling at the highest possible scale".[465] Megan Carpentier of The Guardian wrote that with Lemonade, Beyoncé has "almost revived the album format" by releasing an album that can only be listened to in its entirety.[466] Myf Warhurst on Double J's "Lunch With Myf" explained that while most artists' albums consist of a few singles plus filler songs, Beyoncé "brought the album back", changing the art form of the album "to a narrative with an arc and a story and you have to listen to the entire thing to get the concept".[467]

She is known for coining popular phrases such as "put a ring on it", a euphemism for marriage proposal, "I woke up like this", which started a trend of posting morning selfies with the hashtag #iwokeuplikethis, and "boy, bye", which was used as part of the Democratic National Committee's campaign for the 2020 election.[468][469] Similarly, she also came up with the phrase "visual album" following the release of her fifth studio album, which had a video for every song. This has been recreated by many other artists since, such as Frank Ocean and Melanie Martinez.[470] The album also popularized surprise releases, with many artists releasing songs, videos or albums with no prior announcement, such as Taylor Swift, Nicki Minaj, Eminem, Frank Ocean, Jay-Z and Drake.[471]

In January 2012, research scientist Bryan Lessard named Scaptia beyonceae, a species of horse-fly found in Northern Queensland, Australia after Beyoncé due to the fly's unique golden hairs on its abdomen.[472]

Achievements
See also: List of awards and nominations received by Beyoncé and Destiny's Child
Beyoncé has received numerous awards and is the most-awarded female artist of all time.[473] Having sold over 200 million records worldwide (a further 60 million additionally with Destiny's Child), Beyoncé is one of the best-selling music artists of all time.[474] The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) listed Beyoncé as the top certified artist of the 2000s decade, with a total of 64 certifications.[475][476] In 2009, Billboard named her the Top Female Artist and Top Radio Songs Artist of the Decade.[477][478][479]

In 2010, Billboard named her in their Top 50 R&B/Hip-Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years list at number 15.[480] In 2012, VH1 ranked her third on their list of the "100 Greatest Women in Music", behind Mariah Carey and Madonna.[481] In 2002, she received Songwriter of the Year from American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers becoming the First African American woman to win the award. In 2004 and 2019, she received NAACP Image Award for Entertainer of the Year and the Soul Train Music Award for Sammy Davis Jr. – Entertainer of the Year.

In 2005, she also received APEX Award at the Trumpet Award honoring the achievements of Black African Americans. In 2007, Beyoncé received the International Artist of Excellence award by the American Music Awards. She also received Honorary Otto at the Bravo Otto. The following year, she received the Legend Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Arts at the World Music Awards[482] and Career Achievement Award at the LOS40 Music Awards. In 2010, she received the Award of Honor for Artist of the Decade at the NRJ Music Award.[483] At the 2011 Billboard Music Awards, Beyoncé received the inaugural Billboard Millennium Award.[484]

Beyoncé received the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards and was honored as Honorary Mother of the Year at the Australian Mother of the Year Award in Barnardo's Australia for her Humanitarian Effort in the region and the Council of Fashion Designers of America Fashion Icon Award in 2016. In 2019, alongside Jay-Z, she received GLAAD Vanguard Award which is presented to a member of the entertainment community who does not identify as LGBT but who has made a significant difference in promoting equal rights for LGBT people.[485] In 2020, she was awarded the BET Humanitarian Award. Consequence named her the 30th best singer of all time.[486]

Beyoncé has won 32 Grammy Awards, both as a solo artist and member of Destiny's Child and The Carters, making her the most honored individual by the Grammys.[487][488] She is also the most nominated artist in Grammy Award history with a total of 88 nominations.[489] "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" won Song of the Year in 2010 while "Say My Name",[42] "Crazy in Love" and "Drunk in Love" have each won Best R&B Song. Dangerously in Love, B'Day and I Am... Sasha Fierce have won Best Contemporary R&B Album, while Lemonade has won Best Urban Contemporary Album. Beyoncé set the record for the most Grammy awards won by a female artist in one night in 2010 when she won six awards, breaking the tie she previously held with Alicia Keys, Norah Jones, Alison Krauss, and Amy Winehouse, with Adele equaling this in 2012.[490]

Beyoncé has won 29 MTV Video Music Awards, making her the most-awarded artist in Video Music Award history. She won two awards each with The Carters and Destiny's Child making her lifetime total of 29 VMAs. "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" and "Formation" won Video of the Year in 2009 and 2016 respectively. Beyoncé tied the record set by Lady Gaga in 2010 for the most VMAs won in one night for a female artist with eight in 2016.[182] She is also the most-awarded and nominated artist in BET Award history, winning 29 awards from a total of 60 nominations,[491] the most-awarded person at the Soul Train Music Awards with 17 awards as a solo artist, and the most-awarded person at the NAACP Image Awards with 24 awards as a solo artist.[492] Additionally, Beyoncé is the most-awarded artist at the NAACP Image Awards with 22 awards[493] and the BET Awards with 32 awards.[494]

Following her role in Dreamgirls, Beyoncé was nominated for Best Original Song for "Listen" and Best Actress at the Golden Globe Awards,[495] and Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture at the NAACP Image Awards.[496] Beyoncé won two awards at the Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards 2006; Best Song for "Listen" and Best Original Soundtrack for Dreamgirls: Music from the Motion Picture.[497] According to Fuse in 2014, Beyoncé is the second-most award-winning artist of all time, after Michael Jackson.[498][499] Lemonade won a Peabody Award in 2017.[500] In 2022, "Be Alive" was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song,[501] the Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Song,[502] and the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song.[503]

She was named on the 2016 BBC Radio 4 Woman's Hour Power List as one of seven women judged to have had the biggest impact on women's lives over the past 70 years, alongside Margaret Thatcher, Barbara Castle, Helen Brook, Germaine Greer, Jayaben Desai and Bridget Jones,[504] She was named the Most Powerful Woman in Music on the same list in 2020.[505] In the same year, Billboard named her with Destiny's Child the third Greatest Music Video artists of all time, behind Madonna and Michael Jackson.[506]

On June 16, 2021, Beyoncé won the award of "top touring artist" of the decade (2010s) at the Pollstar Awards.[507] On June 17, 2021, Beyoncé was inducted into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame as a member of the inaugural class.[508]

Business and ventures
In 2010, Beyoncé founded her own entertainment company Parkwood Entertainment which formed as an imprint based from Columbia Records, the company began as a production unit for videos and films in 2008. Parkwood Entertainment is named after a street in Houston, Texas where Beyoncé once lived.[509] With headquarters in New York City, the company serves as an umbrella for the entertainer's various brands in music, movies, videos, and fashion. The staff of Parkwood Entertainment have experiences in arts and entertainment, from filmmaking and video production to web and fashion design. In addition to departments in marketing, digital, creative, publicity, fashion design and merchandising, the company houses a state-of-the-art editing suite, where Beyoncé works on content for her worldwide tours, music videos, and television specials. Parkwood Entertainment's first production was the musical biopic Cadillac Records (2008), in which Beyoncé starred and co-produced.[510] The company has distributed Beyoncé's albums such as her self-titled fifth studio album (2013), Lemonade (2016) and The Carters, Everything is Love (2018). Beyoncé has signed other artists to Parkwood such as Chloe x Halle, who performed at Super Bowl LIII in February 2019.[511]

Endorsements and partnerships
Beyoncé has worked with Pepsi since 2002,[512] and in 2004 appeared in a Gladiator-themed commercial with Britney Spears, Pink, and Enrique Iglesias.[513] In 2012, Beyoncé signed a $50 million deal to endorse Pepsi.[514] The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPINET) wrote Beyoncé an open letter asking her to reconsider the deal because of the unhealthiness of the product and to donate the proceeds to a medical organisation.[515] Nevertheless, NetBase found that Beyoncé's campaign was the most talked about endorsement in April 2013, with a 70 percent positive audience response to the commercial and print ads.[516]

Beyoncé has worked with Tommy Hilfiger for the fragrances True Star (singing a cover version of "Wishing on a Star")[517] and True Star Gold;[518] she also promoted Emporio Armani's Diamonds fragrance in 2007.[519] Beyoncé launched her first official fragrance, Heat, in 2010.[520] In February 2011, Beyoncé launched her second fragrance, Heat Rush.[521] Beyoncé's third fragrance, Pulse, was launched in September 2011.[522] In 2013, The Mrs. Carter Show Limited Edition version of Heat was released.[523] The six editions of Heat are the world's best-selling celebrity fragrance line,[523] with sales of over $400 million.[524]

The release of a video-game Starpower: Beyoncé was cancelled after Beyoncé pulled out of a $100 million deal with GateFive who alleged the cancellation meant the sacking of 70 staff and millions of pounds lost in development.[525] It was settled out of court by her lawyers in June 2013 who said that they had cancelled because GateFive had lost its financial backers.[526] Beyoncé also has had deals with American Express,[432] Nintendo DS[527] and L'Oréal since the age of 18.[528]

In March 2015, Beyoncé became a co-owner, with other artists, of the music streaming service Tidal. The service specializes in lossless audio and high definition music videos. Beyoncé's husband Jay-Z acquired the parent company of Tidal, Aspiro, in the first quarter of 2015.[529] Including Beyoncé and Jay-Z, sixteen artist stakeholders (such as Kanye West, Rihanna, Madonna, Chris Martin, Nicki Minaj and more) co-own Tidal, with the majority owning a 3% equity stake.[530] The idea of having an all artist owned streaming service was created by those involved to adapt to the increased demand for streaming within the current music industry.[531]

In November 2020, Beyoncé formed a multi-year partnership with exercise equipment and media company Peloton. The partnership was formed to celebrate homecoming season in historically black colleges and universities, providing themed workout experiences inspired by Beyoncé's 2019 Homecoming film and live album after 2020's homecoming celebrations were cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As part of the partnership, Beyoncé and Peloton are donating free memberships to all students at 10 HBCUs, and Peloton are pursuing long-term recruiting partnerships at the HCBUs. Gwen Bethel Riley, head of music at Peloton, said: "When we had conversations with Beyoncé around how critical a social impact component was to all of us, it crystallized how important it was to embrace Homecoming as an opportunity to celebrate and create dialogue around Black culture and music, in partnership with HBCUs."[532] Upon news of the partnership, a decline in Peloton's shares reversed, and its shares rose by 8.6%.[533]

In 2021, Beyoncé and Jay-Z partnered with Tiffany & Co. for the company's "About Love" campaign. Beyoncé became the fourth woman, and first Black woman, to wear the 128.54-carat Tiffany Yellow Diamond.[534] The campaign featured a robin egg blue painting by Jean-Michel Basquiat titled Equals Pi (1982).[535] Both Beyonce and the brand faced significant backlash for the campaign, as the Tiffany Yellow Diamond, which was discovered in the Kimberley diamond mines in South Africa in 1877, is classified as a blood diamond and viewed as a symbol of British colonialism over Africa.[536][537][538]

Fashion lines
Beyoncé and her mother introduced House of Deréon, a women's fashion line, in 2005.[539] The concept is inspired by three generations of women in their family, with the name paying tribute to Beyoncé's grandmother, Agnèz Deréon, a respected seamstress.[540][541] According to Tina, the overall style of the line best reflects her and Beyoncé's taste and style. Beyoncé and her mother founded their family's company Beyond Productions, which provides the licensing and brand management for House of Deréon, and its junior collection, Deréon.[539] House of Deréon pieces were exhibited in Destiny's Child's shows and tours, during their Destiny Fulfilled era.[542][543] The collection features sportswear, denim offerings with fur, outerwear and accessories that include handbags and footwear, and are available at department and specialty stores across the U.S. and Canada.[539]

In 2005, Beyoncé teamed up with House of Brands, a shoe company, to produce a range of footwear for House of Deréon.[544] In January 2008, Starwave Mobile launched Beyoncé Fashion Diva, a "high-style" mobile game with a social networking component, featuring the House of Deréon collection.[539] In July 2009, Beyoncé and her mother launched a new junior apparel label, Sasha Fierce for Deréon, for back-to-school selling. The collection included sportswear, outerwear, handbags, footwear, eyewear, lingerie and jewelry.[545] It was available at department stores including Macy's and Dillard's, and specialty stores Jimmy Jazz and Against All Odds.[545] In May 2010, Beyoncé teamed up with clothing store C&A to launch Deréon by Beyoncé at their stores in Brazil.[546] The collection included tailored blazers with padded shoulders, little black dresses, embroidered tops and shirts and bandage dresses.[546]

In October 2014, Beyoncé signed a deal to launch an activewear line of clothing with British fashion retailer Topshop.[547][548] The 50–50 venture is called Ivy Park and was launched in April 2016. The brand's name is a nod to Beyoncé's daughter and her favorite number four (IV in Roman numerals), and also references the park where she used to run in Texas.[549] She has since bought out Topshop owner Philip Green from his 50% share after he was alleged to have sexually harassed, bullied and racially abused employees.[550] She now owns the brand herself.[551]

In April 2019, it was announced that Beyoncé would become a creative partner with Adidas and further develop her athletic brand Ivy Park with the company. Knowles will also develop new clothes and footwear for Adidas. Shares for the company rose 1.3% upon the news release.[552] In December 2019, they announced a launch date of January 18, 2020.[553] Beyoncé uploaded a teaser on her website and Instagram.[554] The collection was previewed on the upcoming Elle January 2020 issue, where Beyoncé is seen wearing several garments, accessories and footwear from the first collection.[555] In February 2023, The Wall Street Journal reported that the line was struggling financially with revenue falling by more than 50% over the past fiscal year to $40 million; well short of the company's $250 million projected forecast.[556] In March 2023, it was announced that Beyoncé and Adidas reached a mutual decision to end their partnership.[557][558]

Later in March 2023, Olivier Rousteing, the creative director of Balmain, announced that he and Beyoncé collaborated on a couture collection complete with sixteen looks corresponding to the sixteen tracks on her album Renaissance. This "Renaissance Couture" collection marked the first time that a Black woman oversaw the development of a collection from a Parisian couture house.[559]

Philanthropy
See also: BeyGood
A woman is surrounded by several others, all behind a piece of white tape
Beyoncé (center) and her mother, Tina, (left) at the opening of the Beyoncé Cosmetology Center on March 5, 2010
In 2002, Beyoncé, Kelly Rowland and Tina Knowles built the Knowles-Rowland Center for Youth, a community center in Downtown Houston. After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Beyoncé and Rowland founded the Survivor Foundation to provide transitional housing to displaced families and provide means for new building construction, to which Beyoncé contributed an initial $250,000.[560] The foundation has since expanded to work with other charities in the city,[561] and also provided relief following Hurricane Ike three years later.[562] Beyoncé also donated $100,000 to the Gulf Coast Ike Relief Fund.[563] In 2007, Beyoncé founded the Knowles-Temenos Place Apartments, a housing complex offering living space for 43 displaced individuals. As of 2016, Beyoncé had donated $7 million for the maintenance of the complex.[564]

After starring in Cadillac Records in 2009 and learning about Phoenix House, a non-profit drug and alcohol rehabilitation organization, Beyoncé donated her full $4 million salary from the film to the organization. Beyoncé and her mother subsequently established the Beyoncé Cosmetology Center, which offers a seven-month cosmetology training course helping Phoenix House's clients gain career skills during their recovery.[565]

In January 2010, Beyoncé participated in George Clooney and Wyclef Jean's Hope for Haiti Now: A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief telethon,[566] donated a large sum to the organization,[567] and was named the official face of the limited edition Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) "Fashion For Haiti" T-shirt.[568] In April 2011, Beyoncé joined forces with U.S. First Lady Michelle Obama and the National Association of Broadcasters Education Foundation, to help boost the latter's campaign against child obesity[569] by reworking her single "Get Me Bodied".[570] Following the death of Osama bin Laden, Beyoncé released her cover of the Lee Greenwood song "God Bless the USA", as a charity single to help raise funds for the New York Police and Fire Widows' and Children's Benefit Fund.[571]

Beyoncé became an ambassador for the 2012 World Humanitarian Day campaign donating her song "I Was Here" and its music video, shot in the UN, to the campaign.[572][573] In 2013, it was announced that Beyoncé would work with Salma Hayek and Frida Giannini on a Gucci "Chime for Change" campaign that aims to spread female empowerment. The campaign, which aired on February 28, was set to her new music.[574] A concert for the cause took place on June 1, 2013, in London.[575] With help of the crowdfunding platform Catapult, visitors of the concert could choose between several projects promoting education of women and girls.[576][577] Beyoncé also took part in "Miss a Meal", a food-donation campaign,[578] and supported Goodwill Industries through online charity auctions at Charitybuzz that support job creation throughout Europe and the U.S.[579][580]

Beyoncé and Jay-Z secretly donated tens of thousands of dollars to bail out Black Lives Matter protesters in Baltimore and Ferguson, as well as funded infrastructure for the establishment of Black Lives Matter chapters across the US.[581] Before Beyoncé's Formation World Tour show in Tampa, her team held a private luncheon for more than 20 community leaders to discuss how Beyoncé could support local charitable initiatives, including pledging on the spot to fund 10 scholarships to provide students with financial aid. Tampa Sports Authority board member Thomas Scott said: "I don't know of a prior artist meeting with the community, seeing what their needs are, seeing how they can invest in the community. It says a lot to me about Beyoncé. She not only goes into a community and walks away with (money), but she also gives money back to that community."[582]

In June 2016, Beyoncé donated over $82,000 to the United Way of Genesee County to support victims of the Flint water crisis. Beyoncé additionally donated money to support 14 students in Michigan with their college expenses.[583] In August 2016, Beyoncé and Jay-Z donated $1.5 million to civil rights groups including Black Lives Matter, Hands Up United and Dream Defenders.[584] After Hurricane Matthew, Beyoncé and Jay-Z donated $15 million to the Usain Bolt Foundation to support its efforts in rebuilding homes in Haiti.[585]

During Hurricane Harvey in August 2017, Beyoncé launched BeyGOOD Houston to support those affected by the hurricane in Houston. The organization donated necessities such as cots, blankets, pillows, baby products, feminine products and wheelchairs, and funded long-term revitalization projects.[586] On September 8, Beyoncé visited Houston, where she sponsored a lunch for 400 survivors at her local church, visited the George R Brown Convention Center to discuss with people displaced by the flooding about their needs, served meals to those who lost their homes, and made a significant donation to local causes.[587][588] Beyoncé additionally donated $75,000 worth of new mattresses to survivors of the hurricane.[589] Later that month, Beyoncé released a remix of J Balvin and Willy William's "Mi Gente", with all of her proceeds being donated to disaster relief charities in Puerto Rico, Mexico, the U.S. and the Caribbean after hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria, and the Chiapas and Puebla earthquakes.[590]

In April 2020, Beyoncé donated $6 million to the National Alliance in Mental Health, UCLA and local community-based organizations in order to provide mental health and personal wellness services to essential workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. BeyGOOD also teamed up with local organizations to help provide resources to communities of color, including food, water, cleaning supplies, medicines and face masks.[591] The same month Beyoncé released a remix of Megan Thee Stallion's "Savage", with all proceeds benefiting Bread of Life Houston's COVID-19 relief efforts, which includes providing over 14 tons of food and supplies to 500 families and 100 senior citizens in Houston weekly.[592]

In May 2020, Beyoncé provided 1,000 free COVID-19 tests in Houston as part of her and her mother's #IDidMyPart initiative, which was established due to the disproportionate deaths in African-American communities. Additionally, 1,000 gloves, masks, hot meals, essential vitamins, grocery vouchers and household items were provided.[593] In July 2020, Beyoncé established the Black-Owned Small Business Impact Fund in partnership with the NAACP, which offers $10,000 grants to black-owned small businesses in need following the George Floyd protests.[594] All proceeds from Beyoncé's single "Black Parade" were donated to the fund.[595] In September 2020, Beyoncé announced that she had donated an additional $1 million to the fund.[596] As of December 31, 2020, the fund had given 715 grants to black-owned small businesses, amounting to $7.15 million donated.[597]

In October 2020, Beyoncé released a statement that she has been working with the Feminist Coalition to assist supporters of the End SARS movement in Nigeria, including covering medical costs for injured protestors, covering legal fees for arrested protestors, and providing food, emergency shelter, transportation and telecommunication means to those in need. Beyoncé also showed support for those fighting against other issues in Africa, such as the Anglophone Crisis in Cameroon, ShutItAllDown in Namibia, Zimbabwean Lives Matter in Zimbabwe and the Rape National Emergency in Liberia.[598] In December 2020, Beyoncé donated $500,000 to help alleviate the housing crisis in the U.S. caused by the cessation of the eviction moratorium, giving 100 $5,000 grants to individuals and families facing foreclosures and evictions.[599]

Hair Care Brand
In February 2024, on the launch day of Beyoncé's Cécred hair care brand, she established an annual grant in collaboration with BeyGood. This is an effort to provide financial support to cosmetology students and professional hair stylists within the beauty industry.[600] A yearly $500,000 is funding cosmetology school scholarships and salon business grants across five cities chosen for their large, diverse community of hair stylists: Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles and Clementon.[d][601]

Discography
Main articles: Beyoncé albums discography, Beyoncé singles discography, and List of songs recorded by Beyoncé
Solo studio albums

Dangerously in Love (2003)
B'Day (2006)
I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008)
4 (2011)
Beyoncé (2013)
Lemonade (2016)
Renaissance (2022)
Cowboy Carter (2024)
with Destiny's Child

Main articles: Destiny's Child discography and songs
Destiny's Child (1998)
The Writing's on the Wall (1999)
Survivor (2001)
8 Days of Christmas (2001)
Destiny Fulfilled (2004)
with Jay-Z (as The Carters)

Main article: The Carters discography
Everything Is Love (2018)
Soundtrack albums

The Lion King: The Gift (2019)
Filmography
Main article: Beyoncé videography § Film
This section lists select works only. Refer to the main article for further information.
Films starred
Carmen: A Hip Hopera (2001)
Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002)
The Fighting Temptations (2003)
Fade to Black (2004)
The Pink Panther (2006)
Dreamgirls (2006)
Cadillac Records (2008)
Obsessed (2009)
Epic (2013)
Lemonade (also director) (2016)
The Lion King (2019)
Black Is King (also director) (2020)
Mufasa: The Lion King (2024)
Documentary and concert films
Live at Wembley (2004)
The Beyoncé Experience Live (2007)
I Am... Yours (2009)
I Am... World Tour (also director) (2010)
Live at Roseland: Elements of 4 (also director) (2011)
Life Is But a Dream (also director) (2013)
Live in Atlantic City (also director) (2013)
On the Run Tour (2014)
Homecoming: A Film by Beyoncé (also director) (2019)
Renaissance: A Film by Beyoncé (also director) (2023)
Tours and residencies
Main article: List of Beyoncé live performances
Headlining tours
Dangerously in Love Tour (2003)
The Beyoncé Experience (2007)
I Am... Tour (2009–2010)
The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour (2013–2014)
The Formation World Tour (2016)
Renaissance World Tour (2023)
Co-headlining tours
Verizon Ladies First Tour (with Alicia Keys and Missy Elliott) (2004)
On the Run Tour (with Jay-Z) (2014)
On the Run II Tour (with Jay-Z) (2018)
Residencies
I Am... Yours (2009)
4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé (2011)
Revel Presents: Beyoncé Live (2012)
See also
Forbes list of highest-earning musicians
Honorific nicknames in popular music
List of artists who reached number one in the United States
List of artists with the most number-one European singles
List of Billboard Social 50 number-one artists
List of black Golden Globe Award winners and nominees
List of highest-grossing live music artists
List of most-followed Instagram accounts
Notes
 Naming laws in Texas do not allow accented characters (é).
 For her works with Destiny's Child and The Carters, see Destiny's Child discography, List of Destiny's Child songs and The Carters discography
 The gross takings from the 29 shows which were reported to Billboard Boxscore totalled $24.9 million; the tour comprised 96 concerts.[100]
 Clementon is technically a borough but is listed as one of the "cities" chosen on the Cécred website.
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Joe Biden

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Joseph Biden" and "Biden" redirect here. For his son, Joseph Biden III, see Beau Biden. For other uses, see Biden (disambiguation).
Joe Biden
Official portrait of Joe Biden as president of the United States
Official portrait, 2021
46th President of the United States
Incumbent
Assumed office
January 20, 2021
Vice President    Kamala Harris
Preceded by    Donald Trump
47th Vice President of the United States
In office
January 20, 2009 – January 20, 2017
President    Barack Obama
Preceded by    Dick Cheney
Succeeded by    Mike Pence
United States Senator
from Delaware
In office
January 3, 1973 – January 15, 2009
Preceded by    J. Caleb Boggs
Succeeded by    Ted Kaufman
Personal details
Born    Joseph Robinette Biden Jr.
November 20, 1942 (age 81)
Scranton, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Political party    Democratic (since 1969)
Other political
affiliations    Independent (before 1969)
Spouses    
Neilia Hunter
​
​(m. 1966; died 1972)​
Jill Jacobs ​(m. 1977)​
Children    
BeauHunterNaomiAshley
Relatives    Biden family
Residence    White House
Education    
University of Delaware (BA)
Syracuse University (JD)
Occupation    
Politicianlawyerauthor
Awards    Full list
Signature    Cursive signature in ink
Website    
Campaign website
White House website
Joe Biden's voice
Duration: 6 minutes and 23 seconds.6:23
Biden speaks on the U.S. withdrawal from Afghanistan and the fall of Kabul.
Recorded August 16, 2021
Other offices
Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. (/ˈbaɪdən/ ⓘ BY-dən; born November 20, 1942) is an American politician who is the 46th and current president of the United States since 2021. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as the 47th vice president from 2009 to 2017 under President Barack Obama and represented Delaware in the United States Senate from 1973 to 2009.

Born in Scranton, Pennsylvania, Biden moved with his family to Delaware in 1953. He graduated from the University of Delaware before earning his law degree from Syracuse University. He was elected to the New Castle County Council in 1970 and to the U.S. Senate in 1972. As a senator, Biden drafted and led the effort to pass the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act and the Violence Against Women Act. He also oversaw six U.S. Supreme Court confirmation hearings, including the contentious hearings for Robert Bork and Clarence Thomas. Biden ran unsuccessfully for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1988 and 2008. In 2008, Obama chose Biden as his running mate, and he was a close counselor to Obama during his two terms as vice president. In the 2020 presidential election, Biden and his running mate, Kamala Harris, defeated incumbents Donald Trump and Mike Pence. He is the oldest president in U.S. history, and the first to have a female vice president.

As president, Biden signed the American Rescue Plan Act in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent recession. He signed bipartisan bills on infrastructure and manufacturing. He proposed the Build Back Better Act, which failed in Congress, but aspects of which were incorporated into the Inflation Reduction Act that he signed into law in 2022. Biden appointed Ketanji Brown Jackson to the Supreme Court. He worked with congressional Republicans to resolve the 2023 United States debt-ceiling crisis by negotiating a deal to raise the debt ceiling. In foreign policy, Biden restored America's membership in the Paris Agreement. He oversaw the complete withdrawal of U.S. troops from Afghanistan that ended the war in Afghanistan, leading to the collapse of the Afghan government and the Taliban seizing control. He responded to the Russian invasion of Ukraine by imposing sanctions on Russia and authorizing civilian and military aid to Ukraine. During the Israel–Hamas war, Biden condemned the actions of Hamas and other Palestinian militants as terrorism, announced military support for Israel, and sent humanitarian aid to Palestinian civilians in Gaza.[1][2][3] In April 2023, Biden announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination in the 2024 presidential election, and is now the presumptive nominee.

Early life (1942–1965)
Main article: Early life and career of Joe Biden
Joseph Robinette Biden Jr. was born on November 20, 1942,[4] at St. Mary's Hospital in Scranton, Pennsylvania,[5] to Catherine Eugenia "Jean" Biden (née Finnegan) and Joseph Robinette Biden Sr.[6][7] The oldest child in a Catholic family of English, French, and Irish descent, he has a sister, Valerie, and two brothers, Francis and James.[8]

Biden's father had been wealthy and the family purchased a home in the affluent Long Island suburb of Garden City in the fall of 1946,[9] but he suffered business setbacks around the time Biden was seven years old,[10][11][12] and for several years the family lived with Biden's maternal grandparents in Scranton.[13] Scranton fell into economic decline during the 1950s and Biden's father could not find steady work.[14] Beginning in 1953 when Biden was ten,[15] the family lived in an apartment in Claymont, Delaware, before moving to a house in nearby Mayfield.[16][17][11][13] Biden Sr. later became a successful used-car salesman, maintaining the family in a middle-class lifestyle.[13][14][18]

At Archmere Academy in Claymont,[19] Biden played baseball and was a standout halfback and wide receiver on the high school football team.[13][20] Though a poor student, he was class president in his junior and senior years.[21][22] He graduated in 1961.[21] At the University of Delaware in Newark, Biden briefly played freshman football,[23][24] and, as an unexceptional student,[25] earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1965 with a double major in history and political science.[26][27]

Biden had a stutter and has mitigated it since his early twenties.[28] He has described his efforts to reduce it by reciting poetry before a mirror.[22][29]

Marriages, law school, and early career (1966–1973)
Main article: Early career of Joe Biden
See also: Family of Joe Biden

Neilia Hunter, Joe, Hunter, Naomi Christina and Beau Biden, c. 1972
Biden married Neilia Hunter, a student at Syracuse University, on August 27, 1966,[26][30] after overcoming her parents' disinclination for her to wed a Catholic. Their wedding was held in a Catholic church in Skaneateles, New York.[31] They had three children: Joseph R. "Beau" Biden III, Robert Hunter Biden, and Naomi Christina "Amy" Biden.[26]

Biden in the Syracuse 1968 yearbook
Biden earned a Juris Doctor from Syracuse University College of Law in 1968. He ranked 76th in a class of 85 students after failing a course because he plagiarized a law review article for a paper he wrote in his first year at law school.[25] He was admitted to the Delaware bar in 1969.[4]

Biden clerked at a Wilmington law firm headed by prominent local Republican William Prickett in 1968 and, he later said, "thought of myself as a Republican".[32][33] He disliked incumbent Democratic Delaware governor Charles L. Terry's conservative racial politics and supported a more liberal Republican, Russell W. Peterson, who defeated Terry in 1968.[32] Local Republicans attempted to recruit Biden, but he registered as an Independent because of his distaste for Republican presidential candidate Richard Nixon.[32]

In 1969, Biden practiced law, first as a public defender and then at a law firm headed by a locally active Democrat,[34][32] who named him to the Democratic Forum, a group trying to reform and revitalize the state party;[35] Biden subsequently reregistered as a Democrat.[32] He and another attorney also formed a law firm.[34] Corporate law did not appeal to him, and criminal law did not pay well.[13] He supplemented his income by managing properties.[36]

Biden ran for the 4th district seat on the New Castle County Council in 1970 on a liberal platform that included support for public housing in the suburbs.[37][38] The seat had been held by Republican Henry R. Folsom, who was running in the 5th District following a reapportionment of council districts.[39][40][41] Biden won the general election, defeating Republican Lawrence T. Messick, and took office on January 5, 1971.[42][43] He served until January 1, 1973, and was succeeded by Democrat Francis R. Swift.[44][45] During his time on the county council, Biden opposed large highway projects, which he argued might disrupt Wilmington neighborhoods.[45]

Biden had not openly supported or opposed the Vietnam War until he ran for Senate and opposed Richard Nixon's conduct of the war.[46] While studying at the University of Delaware and Syracuse University, Biden obtained five student draft deferments at a time when most draftees were sent to the war. Based on a physical examination, he was given a conditional medical deferment in 1968; in 2008, a spokesperson for Biden said his having had "asthma as a teenager" was the reason for the deferment.[47]

1972 U.S. Senate campaign in Delaware
Main article: 1972 United States Senate election in Delaware
Biden defeated Republican incumbent J. Caleb Boggs to become the junior U.S. senator from Delaware in 1972. He was the only Democrat willing to challenge Boggs and, with minimal campaign funds, he was thought to have no chance of winning.[34][13] Family members managed and staffed the campaign, which relied on meeting voters face-to-face and hand-distributing position papers,[48] an approach made feasible by Delaware's small size.[36] He received help from the AFL–CIO and Democratic pollster Patrick Caddell.[34] His platform focused on the environment, withdrawal from Vietnam, civil rights, mass transit, equitable taxation, health care and public dissatisfaction with "politics as usual".[34][48] A few months before the election, Biden trailed Boggs by almost thirty percentage points,[34] but his energy, attractive young family, and ability to connect with voters' emotions worked to his advantage,[18] and he won with 50.5% of the vote.[48]

Death of wife and daughter
A few weeks after Biden was elected senator, his wife Neilia and one-year-old daughter Naomi were killed in an automobile accident while Christmas shopping in Hockessin, Delaware, on December 18, 1972.[26][49] Neilia's station wagon was hit by a semi-trailer truck as she pulled out from an intersection. Their sons Beau (aged 3) and Hunter (aged 2) were in the car, and were taken to hospital with non-life-threatening injuries, Beau with a broken leg and other wounds and Hunter with a minor skull fracture and other head injuries.[50] Biden considered resigning to care for them,[18] but Senate majority leader Mike Mansfield persuaded him not to.[51] Biden contemplated suicide and was filled with anger and religious doubt.[52][53] He wrote that he "felt God had played a horrible trick" on him,[54] and had trouble focusing on work.[55][56]

Second marriage
Photo of Biden and his wife smiling, dressed casually
Biden and his second wife, Jill, met in 1975 and married in 1977.
Biden met teacher Jill Tracy Jacobs in 1975 on a blind date.[57] They married at the United Nations chapel in New York on June 17, 1977,[58][59] and spent their honeymoon at Lake Balaton in the Hungarian People's Republic.[60][61] Biden credits her with the renewal of his interest in politics and life.[62] The couple attends Mass at St. Joseph's on the Brandywine in Greenville, Delaware.[63][64][65]

Their daughter, Ashley Biden,[26] is a social worker and is married to physician Howard Krein.[66] Jill helped raise her stepsons, Beau and Hunter. Beau became an Army judge advocate in Iraq and later Delaware attorney general;[67] he died of brain cancer in 2015.[68][69] Hunter has worked as a Washington lobbyist and investment adviser; his business dealings, personal life, and legal issues have come under significant scrutiny during his father's presidency.[70][71]

Teaching
From 1991 to 2008, as an adjunct professor, Biden co-taught a seminar on constitutional law at Widener University School of Law.[72][73] He sometimes flew back from overseas to teach the class.[74][75][76][77]

U.S. Senate (1973–2009)
Main article: U.S. Senate career of Joe Biden
Senate activities
Scanned photo of Biden and Carter smiling at each other in the Oval Office. On the photo, Carter wrote: "Best wishes to my friend Joe Biden"
Biden with President Jimmy Carter, 1979

Biden (left) and Frank Church (middle) with president of Egypt Anwar el-Sadat after signing the Egypt–Israel peace treaty, 1979
Secretary of the Senate Francis R. Valeo swore Biden in at the Delaware Division of the Wilmington Medical Center in January 1973.[78][50] Present were his sons Beau (whose leg was still in traction from the automobile accident) and Hunter and other family members.[78][50] At age 30, he was the seventh-youngest senator in U.S. history.[79] To see his sons, Biden traveled by train between his Delaware home and D.C.[80]—74 minutes each way—and maintained this habit throughout his 36 years in the Senate.[18]

Elected to the U.S. Senate in 1972, Biden was reelected in 1978, 1984, 1990, 1996, 2002, and 2008, regularly receiving about 60% of the vote.[81] He was junior senator to William Roth, who was first elected in 1970, until Roth was defeated in 2000.[82] As of 2024, he was the 19th-longest-serving senator in U.S. history.[83]

During his early years in the Senate, Biden focused on consumer protection and environmental issues and called for greater government accountability.[84] In a 1974 interview, he described himself as liberal on civil rights and liberties, senior citizens' concerns and healthcare, but conservative on other issues, including abortion and military conscription.[85] Biden was the first U.S. senator to endorse Jimmy Carter for president in the 1976 Democratic primary.[86] Carter went on to win the Democratic nomination and defeat incumbent Republican President Gerald Ford in the 1976 election. Biden also worked on arms control.[87][88] After Congress failed to ratify the SALT II Treaty signed in 1979 by Soviet general secretary Leonid Brezhnev and President Jimmy Carter, Biden met with Soviet foreign minister Andrei Gromyko to communicate American concerns and secured changes that addressed the Senate Foreign Relations Committee's objections.[89] He received considerable attention when he excoriated Secretary of State George Shultz at a Senate hearing for the Reagan administration's support of South Africa despite its continued policy of apartheid.[32]

In the mid-1970s, Biden was one of the Senate's strongest opponents of race-integration busing. His Delaware constituents strongly opposed it, and such opposition nationwide later led his party to mostly abandon school integration policies.[90] In his first Senate campaign, Biden had expressed support for busing to remedy de jure segregation, as in the South, but opposed its use to remedy de facto segregation arising from racial patterns of neighborhood residency, as in Delaware; he opposed a proposed constitutional amendment banning busing entirely.[91] Biden supported a 1976 measure forbidding the use of federal funds for transporting students beyond the school closest to them.[90] He co-sponsored a 1977 amendment closing loopholes in that measure, which President Carter signed into law in 1978.[92]

Photo of Biden shaking hands with Reagan in the Oval Office
Biden shaking hands with President Ronald Reagan, 1984
Biden became ranking minority member of the Senate Judiciary Committee in 1981. He was a Democratic floor manager for the successful passage of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act in 1984. His supporters praised him for modifying some of the law's worst provisions, and it was his most important legislative accomplishment to that time.[93] In 1994, Biden helped pass the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, which included a ban on assault weapons,[94][95] and the Violence Against Women Act,[96] which he has called his most significant legislation.[97] The 1994 crime law was unpopular among progressives and criticized for resulting in mass incarceration;[98][99] in 2019, Biden called his role in passing the bill a "big mistake", citing its policy on crack cocaine and saying that the bill "trapped an entire generation".[100]

Biden meeting with attorney general Janet Reno, 1993
Biden voted for a 1993 provision that deemed homosexuality incompatible with military life, thereby banning gays from serving in the armed forces.[101][102] In 1996, he voted for the Defense of Marriage Act, which prohibited the federal government from recognizing same-sex marriages, thereby barring individuals in such marriages from equal protection under federal law and allowing states to do the same.[103] In 2015, the act was ruled unconstitutional in Obergefell v. Hodges.[104]

Biden was critical of Independent Counsel Ken Starr during the 1990s Whitewater controversy and Lewinsky scandal investigations, saying "it's going to be a cold day in hell" before another independent counsel would be granted similar powers.[105] He voted to acquit during the impeachment of President Clinton.[106] During the 2000s, Biden sponsored bankruptcy legislation sought by credit card issuers.[18] Clinton vetoed the bill in 2000, but it passed in 2005 as the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act,[18] with Biden being one of only 18 Democrats to vote for it, while leading Democrats and consumer rights organizations opposed it.[107] As a senator, Biden strongly supported increased Amtrak funding and rail security.[81][108]

Brain surgeries
In February 1988, after several episodes of increasingly severe neck pain, Biden underwent surgery to correct a leaking intracranial berry aneurysm.[109][110] While recuperating, he suffered a pulmonary embolism, a serious complication.[110] After a second aneurysm was surgically repaired in May,[110][111] Biden's recuperation kept him away from the Senate for seven months.[112]

Senate Judiciary Committee
Photo of Senator Biden giving a speech, with uniformed law enforcement officers in the background
Biden speaking at the signing of the 1994 Crime Bill with President Bill Clinton.
Biden was a longtime member of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary. He chaired it from 1987 to 1995 and was a ranking minority member from 1981 to 1987 and again from 1995 to 1997.[113]

As chair, Biden presided over two highly contentious U.S. Supreme Court confirmation hearings.[18] When Robert Bork was nominated in 1988, Biden reversed his approval‍—‌ given in an interview the previous year‍—‌ of a hypothetical Bork nomination. Conservatives were angered,[114] but at the hearings' close Biden was praised for his fairness, humor, and courage.[114][115] Rejecting the arguments of some Bork opponents,[18] Biden framed his objections to Bork in terms of the conflict between Bork's strong originalism and the view that the U.S. Constitution provides rights to liberty and privacy beyond those explicitly enumerated in its text.[115] Bork's nomination was rejected in the committee by a 5–9 vote[115] and then in the full Senate, 42–58.[116]

During Clarence Thomas's nomination hearings in 1991, Biden's questions on constitutional issues were often convoluted to the point that Thomas sometimes lost track of them,[117] and Thomas later wrote that Biden's questions were akin to "beanballs".[118] After the committee hearing closed, the public learned that Anita Hill, a University of Oklahoma law school professor, had accused Thomas of making unwelcome sexual comments when they had worked together.[119][120] Biden had known of some of these charges, but initially shared them only with the committee because Hill was then unwilling to testify.[18] The committee hearing was reopened and Hill testified, but Biden did not permit testimony from other witnesses, such as a woman who had made similar charges and experts on harassment.[121] The full Senate confirmed Thomas by a 52–48 vote, with Biden opposed.[18] Liberal legal advocates and women's groups felt strongly that Biden had mishandled the hearings and not done enough to support Hill.[121] In 2019, he told Hill he regretted his treatment of her, but Hill said afterward she remained unsatisfied.[122]

Senate Foreign Relations Committee
Photo of Clinton, his senior officials, and Biden on Air Force One
Senator Biden accompanies President Clinton and other officials to Bosnia and Herzegovina, December 1997.
Biden was a longtime member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. He became its ranking minority member in 1997 and chaired it from June 2001 to 2003 and 2007 to 2009.[123] His positions were generally liberal internationalist.[87][124] He collaborated effectively with Republicans and sometimes went against elements of his own party.[123][124] During this time he met with at least 150 leaders from 60 countries and international organizations, becoming a well-known Democratic voice on foreign policy.[125]

Biden voted against authorization for the Gulf War in 1991,[124] siding with 45 of the 55 Democratic senators. He said the U.S. was bearing almost all the burden in the anti-Iraq coalition.[126]

Biden became interested in the Yugoslav Wars after hearing about Serbian abuses during the Croatian War of Independence in 1991.[87] Once the Bosnian War broke out, Biden was among the first to call for the "lift and strike" policy.[87][123] The George H. W. Bush administration and Clinton administration were both reluctant to implement the policy, fearing Balkan entanglement.[87][124] In April 1993, Biden held a tense three-hour meeting with Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević.[127] Biden worked on several versions of legislative language urging the U.S. toward greater involvement.[127] Biden has called his role in affecting Balkan policy in the mid-1990s his "proudest moment in public life" related to foreign policy.[124] In 1999, during the Kosovo War, Biden supported the 1999 NATO bombing of FR Yugoslavia.[87] He and Senator John McCain co-sponsored the McCain-Biden Kosovo Resolution, which called on Clinton to use all necessary force, including ground troops, to confront Milošević over Yugoslav actions toward ethnic Albanians in Kosovo.[124][128]

Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq
Main article: War on terror
refer to caption
Biden addresses the press after meeting with Prime Minister Ayad Allawi in Baghdad in 2004.
Biden was a strong supporter of the War in Afghanistan, saying, "Whatever it takes, we should do it."[129] As head of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he said in 2002 that Iraqi president Saddam Hussein was a threat to national security and there was no other option than to "eliminate" that threat.[130] In October 2002, he voted in favor of the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq, approving the U.S. Invasion of Iraq.[124] As chair of the committee, he assembled a series of witnesses to testify in favor of the authorization. They gave testimony grossly misrepresenting the intent, history, and status of Saddam and his secular government, which was an avowed enemy of al-Qaeda, and touted Iraq's fictional possession of Weapons of Mass Destruction.[131] Biden eventually became a critic of the war and called his vote and role a "mistake" but did not push for withdrawal.[124][127] He supported the appropriations for the occupation, but argued that the war should be internationalized, that more soldiers were needed, and that the Bush administration should "level with the American people" about its cost and length.[123][128]

By late 2006, Biden's stance had shifted considerably. He opposed the troop surge of 2007,[124][127] saying General David Petraeus was "dead, flat wrong" in believing the surge could work.[132] Biden instead advocated dividing Iraq into a loose federation of three ethnic states.[133] Rather than continue the existing approach or withdrawing, the plan called for "a third way": federalizing Iraq and giving Kurds, Shiites, and Sunnis "breathing room" in their own regions.[134] In September 2007, a non-binding resolution endorsing the plan passed the Senate,[135] but the idea failed to gain traction.[132]

1988 and 2008 presidential campaigns
1988 campaign
Main article: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

Biden speaks at a campaign event, 1987
Biden formally declared his candidacy for the 1988 Democratic presidential nomination on June 9, 1987.[136] He was considered a strong candidate because of his moderate image, his speaking ability, his high profile as chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee at the upcoming Robert Bork Supreme Court nomination hearings, and his appeal to Baby Boomers; he would have been the second-youngest person elected president, after John F. Kennedy.[32][137][138] He raised more in the first quarter of 1987 than any other candidate.[137][138]

By August his campaign's messaging had become confused due to staff rivalries,[139] and in September, he was accused of plagiarizing a speech by British Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock.[140] Biden's speech had similar lines about being the first person in his family to attend university. Biden had credited Kinnock with the formulation on previous occasions,[141][142] but did not on two occasions in late August.[143]: 230–232 [142] Kinnock himself was more forgiving; the two men met in 1988, forming an enduring friendship.[144]

Earlier that year, Biden had also used passages from a 1967 speech by Robert F. Kennedy (for which his aides took blame) and a short phrase from John F. Kennedy's inaugural address; two years earlier he had used a 1976 passage by Hubert Humphrey.[145] Biden responded that politicians often borrow from one another without giving credit, and that one of his rivals for the nomination, Jesse Jackson, had called him to point out that he (Jackson) had used the same material by Humphrey that Biden had used.[18][25]

A few days later, an incident in law school in which Biden drew text from a Fordham Law Review article with inadequate citations was publicized.[25] He was required to repeat the course and passed with high marks.[146] At Biden's request the Delaware Supreme Court's Board of Professional Responsibility reviewed the incident and concluded that he had violated no rules.[147]

Biden has made several false or exaggerated claims about his early life: that he had earned three degrees in college, that he attended law school on a full scholarship, that he had graduated in the top half of his class,[148][149] and that he had marched in the civil rights movement.[150] The limited amount of other news about the presidential race amplified these disclosures[151] and on September 23, 1987, Biden withdrew his candidacy, saying it had been overrun by "the exaggerated shadow" of his past mistakes.[152]

2008 campaign
Main article: Joe Biden 2008 presidential campaign
Photo of Biden, casually dressed, talking with a citizen in a garden
Biden campaigns at a house party in Creston, Iowa, July 2007.
After exploring the possibility of a run in several previous cycles, in January 2007, Biden declared his candidacy in the 2008 elections.[81][153][154] During his campaign, Biden focused on the Iraq War, his record as chairman of major Senate committees, and his foreign-policy experience.[155] Biden was noted for his one-liners during the campaign; in one debate he said of Republican candidate Rudy Giuliani: "There's only three things he mentions in a sentence: a noun, and a verb and 9/11."[156]

Biden had difficulty raising funds, struggled to draw people to his rallies, and failed to gain traction against the high-profile candidacies of Obama and Senator Hillary Clinton.[157] He never rose above single digits in national polls of the Democratic candidates. In the first contest on January 3, 2008, Biden placed fifth in the Iowa caucuses, garnering slightly less than one percent of the state delegates.[158] He withdrew from the race that evening.[159]

Despite its lack of success, Biden's 2008 campaign raised his stature in the political world.[160]: 336  In particular, it changed the relationship between Biden and Obama. Although they had served together on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, they had not been close: Biden resented Obama's quick rise to political stardom,[132][161] while Obama viewed Biden as garrulous and patronizing.[160]: 28, 337–338  Having gotten to know each other during 2007, Obama appreciated Biden's campaign style and appeal to working-class voters, and Biden said he became convinced Obama was "the real deal".[161][160]: 28, 337–338 

Vice presidential campaigns of 2008 and 2012
2008 campaign
Main articles: Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign and 2008 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection
Photo of Biden outdoors behind a lectern, with Obama seated behind him and smiling
Biden speaks at the August 23, 2008, vice presidential announcement at the Old State Capitol in Springfield, Illinois.
Shortly after Biden withdrew from the presidential race, Obama privately told him he was interested in finding an important place for Biden in his administration.[162] In early August, Obama and Biden met in secret to discuss the possibility,[162] and developed a strong personal rapport.[161] On August 22, 2008, Obama announced that Biden would be his running mate.[163] The New York Times reported that the strategy behind the choice reflected a desire to fill out the ticket with someone with foreign policy and national security experience.[164] Others pointed out Biden's appeal to middle-class and blue-collar voters.[165][166] Biden was officially nominated for vice president on August 27 by voice vote at the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver.[167]

Biden's vice-presidential campaigning gained little media attention, as the press devoted far more coverage to the Republican nominee, Alaska governor Sarah Palin.[168][169] Under instructions from the campaign, Biden kept his speeches succinct and tried to avoid offhand remarks, such as one he made about Obama's being tested by a foreign power soon after taking office, which had attracted negative attention.[170][171] Privately, Biden's remarks frustrated Obama. "How many times is Biden gonna say something stupid?" he asked.[160]: 411–414, 419  Obama campaign staffers called Biden's blunders "Joe bombs" and kept Biden uninformed about strategy discussions, which in turn irked Biden.[172] Relations between the two campaigns became strained for a month, until Biden apologized on a call to Obama and the two built a stronger partnership.[160]: 411–414 

As the financial crisis of 2007–2010 reached a peak with the liquidity crisis of September 2008 and the proposed bailout of the United States financial system became a major factor in the campaign, Biden voted for the $700 billion Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, which passed in the Senate, 74–25.[173] On October 2, 2008, he participated in the vice-presidential debate with Palin at Washington University in St. Louis. Post-debate polls found that while Palin exceeded many voters' expectations, Biden had won the debate overall.[174]

On November 4, 2008, Obama and Biden were elected with 53% of the popular vote and 365 electoral votes to McCain–Palin's 173.[175][176][177]

At the same time Biden was running for vice president, he was also running for reelection to the Senate,[178] as permitted by Delaware law.[81] On November 4, he was reelected to the Senate, defeating Republican Christine O'Donnell.[179] Having won both races, Biden made a point of waiting to resign from the Senate until he was sworn in for his seventh term on January 6, 2009.[180] Biden cast his last Senate vote on January 15, supporting the release of the second $350 billion for the Troubled Asset Relief Program,[181] and resigned from the Senate later that day.[b]

2012 campaign
Main article: Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign
In October 2010, Biden said Obama had asked him to remain as his running mate for the 2012 presidential election,[185] but with Obama's popularity on the decline, White House chief of staff William M. Daley conducted some secret polling and focus group research in late 2011 on the idea of replacing Biden on the ticket with Hillary Clinton.[186] The notion was dropped when the results showed no appreciable improvement for Obama,[186] and White House officials later said Obama himself had never entertained the idea.[187]

Biden's May 2012 statement that he was "absolutely comfortable" with same-sex marriage gained considerable public attention in comparison to Obama's position, which had been described as "evolving".[188] Biden made his statement without administration consent, and Obama and his aides were quite irked, since Obama had planned to shift position several months later, in the build-up to the party convention.[172][189][190] Gay rights advocates seized upon Biden's statement,[189] and within days, Obama announced that he too supported same-sex marriage, an action in part forced by Biden's remarks.[191] Biden apologized to Obama in private for having spoken out,[192][193] while Obama acknowledged publicly it had been done from the heart.[189]

The Obama campaign valued Biden as a retail-level politician, and he had a heavy schedule of appearances in swing states as the reelection campaign began in earnest in spring 2012.[194][195] An August 2012 remark before a mixed-race audience that Republican proposals to relax Wall Street regulations would "put y'all back in chains" once again drew attention to Biden's propensity for colorful remarks.[194][196][197]

Obama watching Biden debate Paul Ryan in the vice presidential debate on Air Force One
In the first presidential debate of the general election, President Obama's performance was considered surprisingly lackluster.[198] Time magazine's Joe Klein called it "one of the most inept performances I've ever seen by a sitting president."[199] Over the next few days, Obama's lead over Romney collapsed,[200] putting pressure on Biden to stop the bleeding with a strong showing against the Republican vice-presidential nominee, Paul Ryan.[201][202] Some political analysts considered Biden's performance against Ryan in the October 11 vice-presidential debate one of the best of his career[203][204] and a key factor in Obama's rebound in the polls and eventual victory over Romney.[205][206] The debate also became memorable for the popularization of Biden's use of the phrase "a bunch of malarkey" in response to an attack by Ryan on the administration's response to the September 11, 2012, attacks on the U.S. embassy in Benghazi.[207][208] Biden reused the phrase during his 2020 presidential campaign.[209]

On November 6, Obama and Biden won reelection[210] over Romney and Ryan with 332 of 538 Electoral College votes and 51% of the popular vote.[211]

Vice presidency (2009–2017)
See also: Presidency of Barack Obama
First term (2009–2013)
Photo of Biden raising his right hand, reciting the Oath
Biden being sworn in as vice president on January 20, 2009
Biden said he intended to eliminate some explicit roles assumed by George W. Bush's vice president, Dick Cheney, and did not intend to emulate any previous vice presidency.[212] He was sworn in as the 47th vice president of the United States on January 20, 2009.[213] He was the first vice president from Delaware[214] and the first Roman Catholic vice president.[215][216]

Obama was soon comparing Biden to a basketball player "who does a bunch of things that don't show up in the stat sheet".[217] Biden visited Kosovo in May and affirmed the U.S. position that its "independence is irreversible."[218] Biden lost an internal debate to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton about sending 21,000 new troops to Afghanistan,[219][220] but his skepticism was valued,[221] and in 2009, Biden's views gained more influence as Obama reconsidered his Afghanistan strategy.[222] Biden visited Iraq about every two months,[132] becoming the administration's point man in delivering messages to Iraqi leadership about expected progress there.[221] More generally, overseeing Iraq policy became Biden's responsibility: Obama was said to have said, "Joe, you do Iraq."[223] By 2012, Biden had made eight trips there, but his oversight of U.S. policy in Iraq receded with the exit of U.S. troops in 2011.[195][224]

Photo of Obama and Biden shaking hands in the Oval Office
President Obama congratulates Biden for his role in shaping the debt ceiling deal which led to the Budget Control Act of 2011.
Biden oversaw infrastructure spending from the Obama stimulus package intended to help counteract the ongoing recession.[225] During this period, Biden was satisfied that no major instances of waste or corruption had occurred,[221] and when he completed that role in February 2011, he said the number of fraud incidents with stimulus monies had been less than one percent.[226]

Biden's off-message response to a question in late April 2009, during the beginning of the swine flu outbreak, led to a swift retraction by the White House.[227] The remark revived Biden's reputation for gaffes.[228][222][229] Confronted with rising unemployment through July 2009, Biden acknowledged that the administration had "misread how bad the economy was" but maintained confidence the stimulus package would create many more jobs once the pace of expenditures picked up.[230] A hot mic picked up Biden telling Obama that his signing the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was "a big fucking deal" on March 23, 2010. Despite their different personalities, Obama and Biden formed a friendship, partly based around Obama's daughter Sasha and Biden's granddaughter Maisy, who attended Sidwell Friends School together.[172]

Members of the Obama administration said Biden's role in the White House was to be a contrarian and force others to defend their positions.[231] Rahm Emanuel, White House chief of staff, said that Biden helped counter groupthink.[217] Obama said, "The best thing about Joe is that when we get everybody together, he really forces people to think and defend their positions, to look at things from every angle, and that is very valuable for me."[221] The Bidens maintained a relaxed atmosphere at their official residence in Washington, often entertaining their grandchildren, and regularly returned to their home in Delaware.[232]

Biden campaigned heavily for Democrats in the 2010 midterm elections, maintaining an attitude of optimism in the face of predictions of large-scale losses for the party.[185] Following big Republican gains in the elections and the departure of White House chief of staff Rahm Emanuel, Biden's past relationships with Republicans in Congress became more important.[233][234] He led the successful administration effort to gain Senate approval for the New START treaty.[233][234] In December 2010, Biden's advocacy for a middle ground, followed by his negotiations with Senate minority leader Mitch McConnell, were instrumental in producing the administration's compromise tax package that included a temporary extension of the Bush tax cuts.[234][235] The package passed as the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010.

Photo of Obama, Biden, and national security staffers in the Situation Room, somberly listening to updates on the bin Laden raid
Biden, Obama and the national security team gathered in the White House Situation Room to monitor the progress of the May 2011 mission to kill Osama bin Laden.
Obama delegated Biden to lead negotiations with Congress in March 2011 to resolve federal spending levels for the rest of the year and avoid a government shutdown.[236] The U.S. debt ceiling crisis developed over the next few months, but Biden's relationship with McConnell again proved key in breaking a deadlock and bringing about a deal to resolve it, in the form of the Budget Control Act of 2011, signed on August 2, 2011, the same day an unprecedented U.S. default had loomed.[237][238][239] Some reports suggest that Biden opposed proceeding with the May 2011 U.S. mission to kill Osama bin Laden,[195][240] lest failure adversely affect Obama's reelection prospects.[241][242]

Obama named Biden to head the Gun Violence Task Force, created to address the causes of school shootings and consider possible gun control to implement in the aftermath of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, in December 2012.[243] Later that month, during the final days before the United States fell off the "fiscal cliff", Biden's relationship with McConnell again proved important as the two negotiated a deal that led to the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 being passed at the start of 2013.[244][245] It made many of the Bush tax cuts permanent but raised rates on upper income levels.[245]

Second term (2013–2017)

Biden in Morocco, November 2014
Biden was inaugurated to a second term on January 20, 2013, at a small ceremony at Number One Observatory Circle, his official residence, with Justice Sonia Sotomayor presiding (a public ceremony took place on January 21).[246]

Biden played little part in discussions that led to the October 2013 passage of the Continuing Appropriations Act, 2014, which resolved the federal government shutdown of 2013 and the debt-ceiling crisis of 2013. This was because Senate majority leader Harry Reid and other Democratic leaders cut him out of any direct talks with Congress, feeling Biden had given too much away during previous negotiations.[247][248][249]

Biden's Violence Against Women Act was reauthorized again in 2013. The act led to related developments, such as the White House Council on Women and Girls, begun in the first term, as well as the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault, begun in January 2014 with Biden and Valerie Jarrett as co-chairs.[250][251] He talked about sexual violence while introducing Lady Gaga at the 88th Academy Awards in 2016, receiving a standing ovation from the audience.[252]

Biden favored arming Syria's rebel fighters.[253] As the ISIL insurgency in Iraq intensified in 2014, renewed attention was paid to the Biden-Gelb Iraqi federalization plan of 2006, with some observers suggesting Biden had been right all along.[254][255] Biden himself said the U.S. would follow ISIL "to the gates of hell".[256] Biden had close relationships with several Latin American leaders and was assigned a focus on the region during the administration; he visited the region 16 times during his vice presidency, the most of any president or vice president.[257] In August 2016, Biden visited Serbia, where he met with the Serbian Prime Minister, Aleksandar Vučić, and expressed his condolences for civilian victims of the bombing campaign during the Kosovo War.[258]

Photo of Biden and Netanyahu giving speeches, with American and Israeli flags in the background
Biden with Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu in Jerusalem, March 9, 2016
Biden never cast a tie-breaking vote in the Senate, making him the longest-serving vice president with this distinction.[259]

Role in the 2016 presidential campaign
During his second term, Biden was often said to be preparing for a bid for the 2016 Democratic presidential nomination.[260] With his family, many friends, and donors encouraging him in mid-2015 to enter the race, and with Hillary Clinton's favorability ratings in decline at that time, Biden was reported to again be seriously considering the prospect and a "Draft Biden 2016" PAC was established.[260][261][262]

By late 2015, Biden was still uncertain about running. He felt his son Beau's recent death had largely drained his emotional energy, and said, "nobody has a right ... to seek that office unless they're willing to give it 110% of who they are."[263] On October 21, speaking from a podium in the Rose Garden with his wife and Obama by his side, Biden announced his decision not to run for president in 2016.[264][265][266]

Subsequent activities (2017–2019)
Photo of Trump speaking to Biden and Obama, with Trump's hand on Obama's shoulder
Biden with Barack Obama and Donald Trump, at the latter's inauguration on January 20, 2017
After leaving the vice presidency, Biden became an honorary professor at the University of Pennsylvania, developing the Penn Biden Center for Diplomacy and Global Engagement. Biden remained in that position into 2019, before running for president.[267][268]

In 2017, Biden wrote a memoir, Promise Me, Dad, and went on a book tour.[269] By 2019, he and his wife reported that they had earned over $15 million since the end of his vice presidency from speaking engagements and book sales.[270]

Biden remained in the public eye, endorsing candidates while continuing to comment on politics, climate change, and the presidency of Donald Trump.[271][272][273] He also continued to speak out in favor of LGBT rights, continuing advocacy on an issue he had become more closely associated with during his vice presidency.[274][275] In 2018, he gave a eulogy for Senator John McCain, praising McCain's embrace of American ideals and bipartisan friendships.[276] Biden continued to support cancer research.[277]

2020 presidential campaign
Main article: Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign
Speculation and announcement
Photo of Biden raising his fist while while standing behind a lectern
Biden at his presidential kickoff rally in Philadelphia, May 2019
Between 2016 and 2019, media outlets often mentioned Biden as a likely candidate for president in 2020.[278] When asked if he would run, he gave varied and ambivalent answers, saying "never say never".[279] A political action committee known as Time for Biden was formed in January 2018, seeking Biden's entry into the race.[280] He finally launched his campaign on April 25, 2019,[281] saying he was prompted to run because he was worried by the Trump administration and felt a "sense of duty."[282]

Campaign
As the 2020 campaign season heated up, voluminous public polling showed Biden as one of the best-performing Democratic candidates in a head-to-head matchup against President Trump.[283][284][285] With Democrats keenly focused on "electability" for defeating Trump,[286] this boosted his popularity among Democratic voters.[287] It also made Biden a frequent target of Trump.[288][289] In September 2019, it was reported that Trump had pressured Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy to investigate alleged wrongdoing by Biden and his son Hunter Biden.[290] Despite the allegations, no evidence was produced of any wrongdoing by the Bidens.[291][292][293] Trump's pressure to investigate the Bidens was perceived by many as an attempt to hurt Biden's chances of winning the presidency.[294] Trump's alleged actions against Biden resulted in a political scandal[295] and Trump's impeachment by the House of Representatives for abuse of power and obstruction of congress.[296]

In March 2019 and April 2019, eight women accused Biden of previous instances of inappropriate physical contact, such as embracing, touching or kissing.[297] Biden had previously called himself a "tactile politician" and admitted this behavior had caused trouble for him.[298] Journalist Mark Bowden described Biden's lifelong habit of talking close, writing that he "doesn't just meet you, he engulfs you... scooting closer" and leaning forward to talk.[299] In April 2019, Biden pledged to be more "respectful of people's personal space".[300]

Photo of Biden holding a microphone, with a crowd in the background
Biden at a rally on the eve of the Iowa caucuses, February 2020
Throughout 2019, Biden stayed generally ahead of other Democrats in national polls.[301][302] Despite this, he finished fourth in the Iowa caucuses, and eight days later, fifth in the New Hampshire primary.[303][304] He performed better in the Nevada caucuses, reaching the 15% required for delegates, but still finished 21.6 percentage points behind Bernie Sanders.[305] Making strong appeals to Black voters on the campaign trail and in the South Carolina debate, Biden won the South Carolina primary by more than 28 points.[306] After the withdrawals and subsequent endorsements of candidates Pete Buttigieg and Amy Klobuchar, he made large gains in the March 3 Super Tuesday primary elections. Biden won 18 of the next 26 contests, putting him in the lead overall.[307] Elizabeth Warren and Mike Bloomberg soon dropped out, and Biden expanded his lead with victories over Sanders in four states on March 10.[308]

In late March 2020, Tara Reade, one of the eight women who in 2019 had accused Biden of inappropriate physical contact, accused Biden of having sexually assaulted her in 1993.[309] There were inconsistencies between Reade's 2019 and 2020 allegations.[309][310] Biden and his campaign denied the sexual assault allegation.[311][312]

When Sanders suspended his campaign on April 8, 2020, Biden became the Democratic Party's presumptive nominee for president.[313] On April 13, Sanders endorsed Biden in a live-streamed discussion from their homes.[314] Former president Barack Obama endorsed Biden the next day.[315] On August 11, Biden announced U.S. senator Kamala Harris of California as his running mate, making her the first African American and first South Asian American vice-presidential nominee on a major-party ticket.[316] On August 18, 2020, Biden was officially nominated at the 2020 Democratic National Convention as the Democratic Party nominee for president in the 2020 election.[317][318]

Presidential transition
Main article: Presidential transition of Joe Biden
Biden was elected the 46th president of the United States in November 2020. He defeated the incumbent, Donald Trump, becoming the first candidate to defeat a sitting president since Bill Clinton defeated George H. W. Bush in 1992. Trump refused to concede, insisting the election had been "stolen" from him through "voter fraud", challenging the results in court and promoting numerous conspiracy theories about the voting and vote-counting processes, in an attempt to overturn the election results.[319] Biden's transition was delayed by several weeks as the White House ordered federal agencies not to cooperate.[320] On November 23, General Services Administrator Emily W. Murphy formally recognized Biden as the apparent winner of the 2020 election and authorized the start of a transition process to the Biden administration.[321]

On January 6, 2021, during Congress' electoral vote count, Trump told supporters gathered in front of the White House to march to the Capitol, saying, "We will never give up. We will never concede. It doesn't happen. You don't concede when there's theft involved."[322] Soon after, they attacked the Capitol. During the insurrection at the Capitol, Biden addressed the nation, calling the events "an unprecedented assault unlike anything we've seen in modern times".[323][324] After the Capitol was cleared, Congress resumed its joint session and officially certified the election results with Vice President Mike Pence, in his capacity as President of the Senate, declaring Biden and Harris the winners.[325]

Presidency (2021–present)
Main article: Presidency of Joe Biden
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Joe Biden presidency.
Photo of Biden raising his right hand, with his left hand placed on a thick Bible
Biden takes the oath of office administered by Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. at the Capitol, January 20, 2021.
Inauguration
Main article: Inauguration of Joe Biden
Biden was inaugurated as the 46th president of the United States on January 20, 2021.[326][327] At 78, he is the oldest person to have assumed the office.[326][328] He is the second Catholic president (after John F. Kennedy)[329][330] and the first president whose home state is Delaware.[331] He is also the first man since George H. W. Bush to have been both vice president and president, and the second non-incumbent vice president (after Richard Nixon in 1968) to be elected president.[332] He is also the first president from the Silent Generation.[333][334]

Biden's inauguration was "a muted affair unlike any previous inauguration" due to COVID-19 precautions as well as massively increased security measures because of the January 6 United States Capitol attack. Trump did not attend, becoming the first outgoing president since 1869 to not attend his successor's inauguration.[335]

First 100 days
See also: First 100 days of Joe Biden's presidency
In his first two days as president, Biden signed 17 executive orders. By his third day, orders had included rejoining the Paris Climate Agreement, ending the state of national emergency at the border with Mexico, directing the government to rejoin the World Health Organization, face mask requirements on federal property, measures to combat hunger in the United States,[336][337][338][339] and revoking permits for the construction of the Keystone XL pipeline.[340][341][342]

Group photo of Biden, Harris and cabinet members standing outdoors
Biden with his Cabinet, July 2021
On March 11, the first anniversary of COVID-19 having been declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization, Biden signed into law the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, a $1.9 trillion economic stimulus and relief package that he had proposed to support the United States' recovery from the economic and health effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.[343] The package included direct payments to most Americans, an extension of increased unemployment benefits, funds for vaccine distribution and school reopenings, and expansions of health insurance subsidies and the child tax credit. Biden's initial proposal included an increase of the federal minimum wage to $15 per hour, but after the Senate parliamentarian determined that including the increase in a budget reconciliation bill would violate Senate rules, Democrats declined to pursue overruling her and removed the increase from the package.[344][345][346]

Also in March, amid a rise in migrants entering the U.S. from Mexico, Biden told migrants, "Don't come over." In the meantime, migrant adults "are being sent back", Biden said, in reference to the continuation of the Trump administration's Title 42 policy for quick deportations.[347] Biden earlier announced that his administration would not deport unaccompanied migrant children; the rise in arrivals of such children exceeded the capacity of facilities meant to shelter them (before they were sent to sponsors), leading the Biden administration in March to direct the Federal Emergency Management Agency to help.[348]

On April 14, Biden announced that the United States would delay the withdrawal of all troops from the war in Afghanistan until September 11, signaling an end to the country's direct military involvement in Afghanistan after nearly 20 years.[349] In February 2020, the Trump administration had made a deal with the Taliban to completely withdraw U.S. forces by May 1, 2021.[350] Biden's decision met with a wide range of reactions, from support and relief to trepidation at the possible collapse of the Afghan government without American support.[351] On April 22–23, Biden held an international climate summit at which he announced that the U.S. would cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 50%–52% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels. Other countries also increased their pledges.[352][353] On April 28, the eve of his 100th day in office, Biden delivered his first address to a joint session of Congress.[354]

Domestic policy
On June 17, Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, which officially declared Juneteenth a federal holiday.[355] Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since 1983.[356][357][358] In July 2021, amid a slowing of the COVID-19 vaccination rate in the country and the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant, Biden said that the country has "a pandemic for those who haven't gotten the vaccination" and that it was therefore "gigantically important" for Americans to be vaccinated.[359]

Economy

Inflation rate, United States and eurozone, January 2018 through June 2023
Main article: Economic policy of the Joe Biden administration
Biden entered office nine months into a recovery from the COVID-19 recession and his first year in office was characterized by robust growth in real GDP, employment, wages and stock market returns, amid significantly elevated inflation. Real GDP grew 5.9%, the fastest rate in 37 years.[360][361] Amid record job creation, the unemployment rate fell at the fastest pace on record during the year.[362][363][364] By the end of 2021, inflation reached a nearly 40-year high of 7.1%, which was partially offset by the highest nominal wage and salary growth in at least 20 years.[365][366][367][368] In his third month in office, Biden signed an executive order to increase the minimum wage for federal contractors to $15 per hour, an increase of nearly 37%. The order went into effect for 390,000 workers in January 2022.[369][370]

Amid a surge in inflation and high gas prices, Biden's approval ratings declined, reaching net negative in early 2022.[371][372][373] After 5.9% growth in 2021, real GDP growth cooled in 2022 to 2.1%, after slightly negative growth in the first half spurred recession concerns. Job creation and consumer spending remained strong through the year, as the unemployment rate fell to match a 53-year low of 3.5% in December. Inflation peaked at 9.1% in June before easing to 3.2% by October 2023. Stocks had had their worst year since 2008[374][375][376] before recovering. Widespread predictions of an imminent recession did not materialize in 2022 or 2023, and by late 2023 indicators showed sharply lower inflation with economic acceleration. GDP growth hit 4.9% in the third quarter of 2023 and the year ended with stocks near record highs, with robust holiday spending.[377][378][379]

Biden signed numerous major pieces of economic legislation in the 117th Congress, including the American Rescue Plan, Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, CHIPS and Science Act, the Inflation Reduction Act, and the Honoring our PACT Act.[380] Biden signed the CHIPS and Science Act into law on August 9, 2022.[381] The act provides billions of dollars in new funding to boost domestic research on and manufacture of semiconductors, to compete economically with China.[382]

Over the course of five days in March 2023, three small- to mid-size U.S. banks failed, triggering a sharp decline in global bank stock prices and swift response by regulators to prevent potential global contagion. After Silicon Valley Bank collapsed, the first to do so, Biden expressed opposition to a bailout by taxpayers.[383] He claimed that the partial rollback of Dodd-Frank regulations contributed to the bank's failure.[384]

At the beginning of the 118th Congress, Biden and congressional Republicans engaged in a standoff after the United States hit its debt limit, which raised the risk that the U.S. would default on its debt.[385] Biden and House speaker Kevin McCarthy struck a deal to raise the debt limit, the Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023, which suspended the debt limit until January 2025. Biden signed it on June 3, averting a default.[386] The deal was generally seen as favorable to Biden.[387][388]

Judiciary
Further information: List of federal judges appointed by Joe Biden
Photo of Biden and Jackson looking at an off-camera television screen
Biden and Ketanji Brown Jackson watching the U.S. Senate vote on her confirmation, April 2022
By the end of 2021, 40 of Biden's appointees to the federal judiciary had been confirmed, more than any president in his first year in office since Ronald Reagan.[389] Biden has prioritized diversity in his judicial appointments more than any president in U.S. history, with most of his appointees being women and people of color.[390] Most of his appointments have been in blue states, making a limited impact since the courts in these states already generally lean liberal.[391]

In January 2022, Supreme Court justice Stephen Breyer, a moderate liberal nominated by Bill Clinton, announced his intention to retire from the Supreme Court. During his 2020 campaign, Biden vowed to nominate the first Black woman to the Supreme Court if a vacancy occurred,[392] a promise he reiterated after Breyer announced his retirement.[393] On February 25, Biden nominated federal judge Ketanji Brown Jackson to the Supreme Court.[394] She was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on April 7[395] and sworn in on June 30.[396] By November 2023, Biden had confirmed 150 federal judges, including 100 women.[397]

Infrastructure and climate
Further information: Build Back Better Plan and Environmental policy of the Joe Biden administration
Phot of Biden, Johnson and Guterres standing onstage
Biden, UK prime minister Boris Johnson and UN secretary-general António Guterres at the opening ceremony of the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow on November 1, 2021
As part of Biden's Build Back Better agenda, in late March 2021, he proposed the American Jobs Plan, a $2 trillion package addressing issues including transport infrastructure, utilities infrastructure, broadband infrastructure, housing, schools, manufacturing, research and workforce development.[398][399] After months of negotiations among Biden and lawmakers, in August 2021 the Senate passed a $1 trillion bipartisan infrastructure bill called the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act,[400][401] while the House, also in a bipartisan manner, approved that bill in early November 2021, covering infrastructure related to transport, utilities, and broadband.[402] Biden signed the bill into law in mid-November 2021.[403]

The other core part of the Build Back Better agenda was the Build Back Better Act, a $3.5 trillion social spending bill that expands the social safety net and includes major provisions on climate change.[404][405] The bill did not have Republican support, so Democrats attempted to pass it on a party-line vote through budget reconciliation, but struggled to win the support of Senator Joe Manchin, even as the price was lowered to $2.2 trillion.[406] After Manchin rejected the bill,[407] the Build Back Better Act's size was reduced. It was comprehensively reworked into the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, covering deficit reduction, climate change, healthcare, and tax reform.[408]

The Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 was introduced by senators Chuck Schumer and Joe Manchin.[409][410] The package aimed to raise $739 billion and authorize $370 billion in spending on energy and climate change, $300 billion in deficit reduction, three years of Affordable Care Act subsidies, prescription drug reform to lower prices, and tax reform.[411] According to an analysis by the Rhodium Group, the bill will lower US greenhouse gas emissions between 31 percent and 44 percent below 2005 levels by 2030.[412] On August 7, 2022, the Senate passed the bill (as amended) on a 51–50 vote, with all Democrats voting in favor, all Republicans opposed, and Vice President Kamala Harris breaking the tie. The bill was passed by the House on August 12[412] and was signed by Biden on August 16.[413][414]

Before and during the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26), Biden promoted an agreement that the U.S. and the European Union cut methane emissions by a third by 2030 and tried to add dozens of other countries to the effort.[415] Biden pledged to double climate funding to developing countries by 2024.[416] Also at COP26, the U.S. and China reached a deal on greenhouse gas emission reduction. The two countries are responsible for 40 percent of global emissions.[417] In July 2023, when the 2023 heat waves hit the U.S., Biden announced several measures to protect the population and said the heat waves were linked to climate change.[418][419]

COVID-19 diagnosis
On July 21, 2022, Biden tested positive for COVID-19 with reportedly mild symptoms.[420][421] According to the White House, he was treated with Paxlovid.[421][422] He worked in isolation in the White House for five days[423] and returned to isolation when he tested positive again on July 30.[424][425]

Other domestic policy issues
In 2022, Biden endorsed a change to the Senate filibuster to allow for the passing of the Freedom to Vote Act and John Lewis Voting Rights Act, on both of which the Senate had failed to invoke cloture.[426] The rules change failed when two Democratic senators, Joe Manchin and Kyrsten Sinema, joined Senate Republicans in opposing it.[427] In April 2022, Biden signed into law the bipartisan Postal Service Reform Act of 2022 to revamp the finances and operations of the United States Postal Service agency.[428]

On July 28, 2022, the Biden administration announced it would fill four wide gaps on the Mexico–United States border in Arizona near Yuma, an area with some of the busiest corridors for illegal crossings. During his presidential campaign, Biden had pledged to cease all future border wall construction.[429] This occurred after both allies and critics of Biden criticized his administration's management of the southern border.[430]

Photo of Biden and staffers, seated, looking at a television
Biden and senior advisers watch the Senate pass the CHIPS and Science Act on July 27, 2022.
In the summer of 2022, several other pieces of legislation Biden supported passed Congress. The Bipartisan Safer Communities Act aimed to address gun reform issues following the Robb Elementary School shooting in Uvalde, Texas.[431] The act's gun control provisions include extended background checks for gun purchasers under 21, clarification of Federal Firearms License requirements, funding for state red flag laws and other crisis intervention programs, further criminalization of arms trafficking and straw purchases, and partial closure of the boyfriend loophole.[432][433][434] Biden signed the bill on June 25, 2022.[435]

The Honoring our PACT Act of 2022 was introduced in 2021 and signed into law by Biden on August 10, 2022.[436] The act intends to significantly improve healthcare access and funding for veterans who were exposed to toxic substances, including burn pits, during military service.[437]

On October 6, 2022, Biden pardoned all Americans convicted of "small" amounts of cannabis possession under federal law.[438] On December 22, 2023, he pardoned Americans of cannabis use or possession on federal lands regardless of whether they had been charged or prosecuted.[439][440] Two months after his first round of pardons, he signed the Respect for Marriage Act, which repealed the Defense of Marriage Act and requires the federal government to recognize the validity of same-sex and interracial marriages.[441]

2022 elections
Main article: 2022 United States elections
Photo of Biden holding a microphone at a campaign rally, with his jacket off and sleeves rolled up
Biden holding a rally at Bowie State University in Maryland for gubernatorial candidate Wes Moore, November 7, 2022
On September 2, 2022, in a nationally broadcast Philadelphia speech, Biden called for a "battle for the soul of the nation". Off camera, he called Trump supporters "semi-fascists", which Republican commentators denounced.[442][443][444] A predicted Republican wave election did not materialize and the race for U.S. Congress control was much closer than expected, with Republicans securing a slim majority of 222 seats in the House of Representatives,[445][446][447][448] and the Democratic caucus keeping control of the U.S. Senate, with 51 seats, a gain of one seat from the last Congress.[449][c]

It was the first midterm election since 1986 in which the party of the incumbent president achieved a net gain in governorships, and the first since 1934 in which the president's party lost no state legislative chambers.[453] Democrats credited Biden for their unexpectedly favorable performance,[454] and he celebrated the results as a strong day for democracy.[455]

Foreign policy
Main article: Foreign policy of the Joe Biden administration
Photo of Biden, Stoltenberg, and staffers sitting in the Oval Office
Biden meeting with Secretary General of NATO Jens Stoltenberg in the Oval Office, June 7, 2021
In June 2021, Biden took his first trip abroad as president. In eight days he visited Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. He attended a G7 summit, a NATO summit, and an EU summit, and held one-on-one talks with Russian president Vladimir Putin.[456]

In September 2021, Biden announced AUKUS, a security pact between Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, to ensure "peace and stability in the Indo-Pacific over the long term"; the deal included nuclear-powered submarines built for Australia's use.[457]

Withdrawal from Afghanistan
Main article: 2020–2021 US troop withdrawal from Afghanistan
Photo of Biden seated alone at a table, looking at a videoconference screen
Biden in a video conference with Vice President Harris and the U.S. National Security team, discussing the Fall of Kabul on August 15, 2021
American forces began withdrawing from Afghanistan in 2020, under the provisions of a February 2020 US-Taliban agreement that set a May 1, 2021, deadline.[458] The Taliban began an offensive on May 1.[459][460] By early July, most American troops in Afghanistan had withdrawn.[350] Biden addressed the withdrawal in July, saying, "The likelihood there's going to be the Taliban overrunning everything and owning the whole country is highly unlikely."[350]

On August 15, the Afghan government collapsed under the Taliban offensive, and Afghan President Ashraf Ghani fled the country.[350][461] Biden reacted by ordering 6,000 American troops to assist in the evacuation of American personnel and Afghan allies.[462] He faced bipartisan criticism for the manner of the withdrawal,[463] with the evacuation of Americans and Afghan allies described as chaotic and botched.[464][465][466] On August 16, Biden addressed the "messy" situation, taking responsibility for it, and admitting that the situation "unfolded more quickly than we had anticipated".[461][467] He defended his decision to withdraw, saying that Americans should not be "dying in a war that Afghan forces are not willing to fight for themselves."[467][468]

On August 26, a suicide bombing at the Kabul airport killed 13 U.S. service members and 169 Afghans. On August 27, an American drone strike killed two ISIS-K targets, who were "planners and facilitators", according to a U.S. Army general.[469] On August 29, another American drone strike killed ten civilians, including seven children. The Defense Department initially claimed the strike was conducted on an Islamic State suicide bomber threatening Kabul Airport, but admitted the suspect was harmless on September 17, calling its killing of civilians "a tragic mistake".[470]

The U.S. military completed withdrawal from Afghanistan on August 30. Biden called the extraction of over 120,000 Americans, Afghans and other allies "an extraordinary success".[471] He acknowledged that up to 200 Americans who wanted to leave did not, despite his August 18 pledge to keep troops in Afghanistan until all Americans who wanted to leave had left.[472]

Aid to Ukraine
Photo of a smiling Biden holding a child, with a mask lowered onto his chin
Biden with refugees from Ukraine in Warsaw, Poland, March 2022
In late February 2022, after warning for several weeks that an attack was imminent, Biden led the U.S. response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, imposing severe sanctions on Russia and authorizing over $8 billion in weapons shipments to Ukraine.[473][474][475] On April 29, Biden asked Congress for $33 billion for Ukraine,[476][477] but lawmakers later increased it to about $40 billion.[478][479][480] Biden blamed Vladimir Putin for the emerging energy and food crises.[481][482][483]

On February 20, 2023, four days before the anniversary of Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Biden visited Kyiv and met with President Volodymyr Zelenskyy.[484] While there, he promised more military aid to Ukraine and denounced the war.[485][486][487]

In 2022, Congress approved about $113 billion in aid to Ukraine.[488] In October 2023, the Biden administration requested an additional $61.4 billion in aid for Ukraine for the year ahead,[489] but delays in the passage of further aid by the House of Representatives inhibited progress, with the additional $61 billion in aid to Ukraine added in April 2024.[490][491][492] In May 2024, Biden announced a change of American policy allowing for the use of U.S.-supplied military weapons against Russian military targets inside Russia.[493][494][495]

China affairs
Further information: China–United States relations

Biden with Chinese leader Xi Jinping during the G20 summit in Bali, November 14, 2022
The Solomon Islands-China security pact caused alarm in late 2022, as China could build military bases across the South Pacific. Biden sought to strengthen ties with Australia and New Zealand in the wake of the deal, as Anthony Albanese succeeded to the premiership of Australia and Jacinda Ardern's government took a firmer line on Chinese influence.[496][497][498] In a September 2022 interview with 60 Minutes, Biden said that U.S. forces would defend Taiwan in the event of "an unprecedented attack" by the Chinese,[499] which is in contrast to the long-standing U.S. policy of "strategic ambiguity" toward China and Taiwan.[500][501][502] In late 2022, Biden issued several executive orders and federal rules designed to slow Chinese technological growth, and maintain U.S. leadership over computing, biotech, and clean energy.[503]

On February 4, 2023, Biden ordered the United States Air Force to shoot down a suspected Chinese surveillance balloon off the coast of Myrtle Beach, South Carolina.[504][505] The State Department said the balloon carried antennas and other equipment capable of geolocating communications signals, and similar balloons from China have flown over more than 40 nations.[506] The Chinese government denied that the balloon was a surveillance device, instead claiming it was a civilian (mainly meteorological) airship that had blown off course.[507][508] Secretary of State Antony Blinken postponed his planned visit to China as the incident further damaged U.S.-China relations.[509][510][511]

In May 2024, the Biden administration doubled tariffs on solar cells imported from China and more than tripled tariffs on lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries imported from China.[512] It also raised tariffs on imports of Chinese steel, aluminum, and medical materials.[512]

Israel–Hamas war
Further information: United States support for Israel in the Israel–Hamas war

Biden with Israeli president Isaac Herzog and prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu in Tel Aviv, Israel, October 18, 2023
In October 2023, Hamas launched a surprise attack on Israel that devolved into a war, jeopardizing the administration's push to normalize relations between Israel and Saudi Arabia.[513] Biden stated his unequivocal support for Israel and condemned the attack by Hamas.[514] He deployed aircraft carriers in the region to deter others from joining the war,[515] and called for an additional $14 billion in military aid to Israel.[516] He later began pressuring Israel to address the growing humanitarian crisis in Gaza.[517] Biden rejected calls for a ceasefire but said he supported "humanitarian pauses" to deliver aid to the people of the Gaza Strip.[518] He asked Israel to pause its invasion of Gaza for at least three days to allow for hostage negotiations; Israel agreed to daily four-hour pauses.[519] He also directed the U.S. military to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian aid to Palestinians in Gaza.[520] Biden has said he is a Zionist.[521][522]

A crowd in Washington D.C. holding signs protesting the Biden administration's aid to Israel on November 4, 2023
Following the killing of Palestinian civilians receiving food aid on February 29, 2024, Biden said the current level of aid flowing into Gaza was insufficient.[523] On March 3, the U.S. military began airdropping food aid into Gaza.[524] Several experts called the U.S. airdrops performative and said they would do little to alleviate the food situation in Gaza.[525]

As of May 2024, Biden has continued to support Israel during the course of the war despite significant domestic opposition to American involvement in it and subsequent widespread protests. A March 2024 Gallup poll found that a strong majority of Americans disapproved of Israeli conduct during the war.[526] It found that 36% approved "of the military action Israel has taken in Gaza" and 55% disapproved.[526] Young Americans have been significantly less supportive of Israel than older generations.[527][528] Beginning in April 2024, widespread Israel–Hamas war protests emerged on university campuses, denouncing Biden.[529]

On May 31, 2024, Biden announced his support for an Israeli ceasefire proposal, saying that Hamas was "no longer capable" of another large-scale attack.[530][531][532] The proposal, which would establish a permanent ceasefire, release all hostages, and reconstruct the Gaza Strip, was supported by Hamas officials after mediation by Egypt and Qatar.[533][534] The Netanyahu administration responded that Israel's goals regarding "the destruction of Hamas military and governing capabilities" had not changed and that conditions would need to be met before it would agree to a ceasefire.[535][536][537]

NATO enlargement
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Biden expressed support for expanding NATO to cover Sweden and Finland.[538][539] On August 9, 2022, he signed the instruments of ratification stipulating U.S. support for the two countries' entry into NATO.[540][541] Finnish ascenscion occurred on April 4, 2023, but Hungary's and Turkey's opposition to Swedish entry led to a stalemate.[542] Biden led diplomatic talks resulting in formal Swedish ascension into NATO on March 7, 2024.[543][544] He has also expressed openness to Ukrainian entry into NATO following the end of the conflict,[545] supporting an expedited timetable in its ascension and the removal of steps such as the Membership Action Plan typically required for NATO entry.[546][547]

Other foreign issues
On February 4, 2021, the Biden administration announced that the United States was ending its support for the Saudi-led bombing campaign in Yemen.[548] In early February 2022, Biden ordered the counterterrorism raid in northern Syria that resulted in the death of Abu Ibrahim al-Hashimi al-Qurashi, the second leader of the Islamic State.[549] In late July, Biden approved the drone strike that killed Ayman al-Zawahiri, the second leader of Al-Qaeda, and an integral member in the planning of the September 11 attacks.[550] The 2022 OPEC+ oil production cut caused a diplomatic spat with Saudi Arabia, widening the rift between the two countries, and threatening a longstanding alliance.[551][552]

Investigations
Retaining of classified documents
Main article: Joe Biden classified documents incident
On November 2, 2022, while packing files at the Penn Biden Center, Biden's attorneys found classified documents dating from his vice presidency in a "locked closet".[553][554] According to the White House, the documents were reported that day to the U.S. National Archives, which recovered them the next day.[554] On November 14, Attorney General Merrick Garland appointed U.S. attorney John R. Lausch Jr. to conduct an investigation.[555][556] On December 20, a second batch of classified documents was discovered in the garage of Biden's Wilmington, Delaware residence.[557]

The findings broke news on January 9, 2023, after CBS News published an article on the Lausch investigation.[554][558][559] On January 12, Garland appointed Robert K. Hur as special counsel to investigate "possible unauthorized removal and retention of classified documents or other records".[560] On January 20, after a 13-hour consensual search by FBI investigators, six more items with classified markings were recovered from Biden's Wilmington residence.[561] FBI agents searched Biden's home in Rehoboth Beach on February 1 and collected papers and notes from his time as vice president, but did not find any classified information.[562] On February 8, 2024, Hur concluded the special counsel investigation and announced that no charges would be brought against Biden.[563]

Business activities
Main article: United States House Oversight Committee investigation into the Biden family
Further information: Impeachment inquiry into Joe Biden
On January 11, 2023, the House of Representatives launched an investigative committee into the foreign business activities of Biden's son, Hunter, and brother, James.[564] The committee's chair, Representative James Comer, simultaneously investigated alleged corruption related to the Hunter Biden laptop controversy.[565]

On September 12, House speaker Kevin McCarthy initiated a formal impeachment inquiry against Biden, saying that the recent House investigations "paint a picture of corruption" by Biden and his family.[566][567][568][569] Congressional investigations, most notably by the House Oversight committee, have discovered no evidence of wrongdoing by Biden as of December 2023.[d] On December 13, 2023, the House of Representatives voted 221–212 to formalize an impeachment inquiry into Biden.[574][575][576]

2024 presidential campaign
Main article: Joe Biden 2024 presidential campaign
Ending months of speculation,[577][578] on April 25, 2023, Biden confirmed he would run for reelection as president in the 2024 election, with Harris again as his running mate. The campaign launched four years to the day after the start of his 2020 presidential campaign.[579] On the day of his announcement, a Gallup poll found that Biden's approval rating was 37 percent. Most of those surveyed in the poll said the economy was their biggest concern.[580] During his campaign, Biden has promoted higher economic growth and recovery following the COVID-19 pandemic.[581][582] He has frequently stated his intention to "finish the job" as a political rallying cry.[579][583][584]

2024 primaries
Main article: 2024 Democratic Party presidential primaries
Biden was not on the ballot in the January 23 New Hampshire primary, but won it in a write-in campaign with 63.8% of the vote. He had wanted South Carolina to be the first primary, and won that state on February 3 with 96.2% of the vote.[585] Biden received 89.3% of the vote in Nevada and 81.1% of the vote in Michigan, with "none of these candidates" and "uncommitted" coming in second in each state, respectively. On March 5 ("Super Tuesday"), he won 15 of 16 primaries, netting 80% or more of the vote in 13 of them.[586][587] On March 12, he reached more than the 1,968 delegates needed to win the Democratic nomination, becoming the presumptive nominee.[588][589]

Political positions
Main article: Political positions of Joe Biden
Photo of Obama, Biden and Gorbachev smiling at each other
Mikhail Gorbachev (right) being introduced to President Obama by Joe Biden, March 2009. U.S. ambassador to Russia Michael McFaul is pictured in the background.

Pope Francis (left) meets Joe Biden at the White House, September 2015.
As a senator, Biden was regarded as a moderate Democrat.[590] As a presidential nominee, Biden's platform had been called the most progressive of any major party platform in history, although not within his party's ideological vanguard.[591]

Biden says his positions are deeply influenced by Catholic social teaching.[592][593][594]

According to political scientist Carlo Invernizzi Accetti, "it has become second nature to describe his politics with such ready-made labels as centrist or moderate."[595] Accetti says that Biden represents an Americanized form of Christian democracy, taking positions characteristic of both the center-right and center-left.[595] Biden has cited the Catholic philosopher Jacques Maritain, credited with starting the Christian democratic movement, as immensely influential in his thinking.[596] Other analysts have likened his ideology to traditional liberalism, "a doctrine of liberty, equality, justice and individual rights that relies, in the modern age, on a strong federal government for enforcement".[597][598] Such analysts distinguish liberals, who believe in a regulated market economy, from the left, who believe in greater economic intervention or a command economy.[597][598] In 2022, journalist Sasha Issenberg wrote that Biden's "most valuable political skill" was "an innate compass for the ever-shifting mainstream of the Democratic Party".[599]

Biden has proposed partially reversing the corporate tax cuts of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, saying that doing so would not hurt businesses' ability to hire.[600][601] But he supports raising the corporate tax only up to 28% from the 21% established in the 2017 bill, not back to 35%, the corporate tax rate until 2017.[602] He voted for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)[603] and the Trans-Pacific Partnership.[604] Biden is a staunch supporter of the Affordable Care Act (ACA).[605][606] He has promoted a plan to expand and build upon it, paid for by revenue gained from reversing some Trump administration tax cuts.[605] Biden's plan aims to expand health insurance coverage to 97% of Americans, including by creating a public health insurance option.[607]

Biden did not support national same-sex marriage rights while in the Senate and voted for the Defense of Marriage Act,[608] but opposed proposals for constitutional amendments that would have banned same-sex marriage nationwide.[609] Biden has supported same-sex marriage since 2012.[610][611]

As a senator, Biden forged deep relationships with police groups and was a chief proponent of a Police Officer's Bill of Rights measure that police unions supported but police chiefs opposed.[612][613] In 2020, Biden also ran on decriminalizing cannabis,[614] after advocating harsher penalties for drug use as a U.S. senator.[615][616]

Biden believes action must be taken on global warming. As a senator, he co-sponsored the Boxer–Sanders Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act, the most stringent climate bill in the United States Senate.[617] Biden supports nature conservation. According to a report from the Center for American Progress, he broke several records in this domain.[618] He took steps to protect Old-growth forests.[619] Biden opposes drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.[620] He wants to achieve a carbon-free power sector in the U.S. by 2035 and stop emissions completely by 2050.[621] His program includes reentering the Paris Agreement, green building and more.[622] Biden supports environmental justice, including climate justice and ocean justice,[623][624] and has taken steps to implement it.[625] A major step is increasing energy efficiency, water efficiency and resilience to climate disasters in low-income houses for mitigate climate change, reduce costs, improve health and safety.[626][627] Biden has called global temperature rise above the 1.5 degree limit the "only existential threat humanity faces even more frightening than a nuclear war".[628] Despite his clean energy policies and congressional Republicans characterizing them as a "War on American Energy", domestic oil production reached a record high in October 2023.[629]

Biden has said the U.S. needs to "get tough" on China, calling it the "most serious competitor" that poses challenges to the United States' "prosperity, security, and democratic values".[630][631] Biden has spoken about human rights abuses in the Xinjiang region to the Chinese Communist Party leader Xi Jinping, pledging to sanction and commercially restrict Chinese government officials and entities who carry out repression.[632][633]

Biden has said he is against regime change, but for providing non-military support to opposition movements.[634] He opposed direct U.S. intervention in Libya,[635][231] voted against U.S. participation in the Gulf War,[636] voted in favor of the Iraq War,[637] and supports a two-state solution in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[638] Biden has pledged to end U.S. support for the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen and to reevaluate the United States' relationship with Saudi Arabia.[272] Biden supports extending the New START arms control treaty with Russia to limit the number of nuclear weapons deployed by both sides.[639][640] In 2021, Biden officially recognized the Armenian genocide, becoming the first U.S. president to do so.[641][e]

Biden has supported abortion rights throughout his presidency, though he personally opposes abortion because of his Catholic faith.[644][645] In 2019, he said he supported Roe v. Wade and repealing the Hyde Amendment.[646][647] After Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, he criticized near-total bans on abortion access passed in a majority of Republican-controlled states,[648] and took measures to protect abortion rights in the United States.[649] He has vowed to sign a bill codifying the protections of Roe into federal law; such a bill passed the House in 2022, but was unable to clear the Senate filibuster.[650][651]

Public image
Main article: Public image of Joe Biden
Biden was consistently ranked one of the least wealthy members of the Senate,[652][653] which he attributed to his having been elected young.[654] Feeling that less-wealthy public officials may be tempted to accept contributions in exchange for political favors, he proposed campaign finance reform measures during his first term.[93] As of November 2009, Biden's net worth was $27,012.[655] By November 2020, the Bidens were worth $9 million, largely due to sales of Biden's books and speaking fees after his vice presidency.[656][657]

Political columnist David S. Broder wrote that Biden has grown over time:

He responds to real people—that's been consistent throughout. And his ability to understand himself and deal with other politicians has gotten much, much better."[36]

Journalist James Traub has written that "Biden is the kind of fundamentally happy person who can be as generous toward others as he is to himself".[132] In recent years, especially after the 2015 death of his elder son Beau, Biden has been noted for his empathetic nature and ability to communicate about grief.[658][659] In 2020, CNN wrote that his presidential campaign aimed to make him "healer-in-chief", while The New York Times described his extensive history of being called upon to give eulogies.[660]

Journalist and TV anchor Wolf Blitzer has called Biden loquacious;[661] journalist Mark Bowden has said that he is famous for "talking too much", leaning in close "like an old pal with something urgent to tell you".[299] He often deviates from prepared remarks[662] and sometimes "puts his foot in his mouth".[168][663][664] Biden has a reputation for being prone to gaffes[665] and in 2018 called himself "a gaffe machine".[666][667] The New York Times wrote that Biden's "weak filters make him capable of blurting out pretty much anything."[168]

Joe Biden's 81st birthday cake
Joe Biden is the oldest sitting president in United States history.[668][669] During his presidency, Republicans, Democrats, and pundits raised questions about Biden's cognitive health in reaction to his publicized gaffes. Biden has repeatedly said that he is fit for the presidency.[670][671][672][673]

According to The New York Times, Biden often embellishes elements of his life or exaggerates, a trait also noted by The New Yorker in 2014.[674][675] For instance, he has claimed to have been more active in the civil rights movement than he actually was, and has falsely recalled being an excellent student who earned three college degrees.[674] The Times wrote, "Mr. Biden's folksiness can veer into folklore, with dates that don't quite add up and details that are exaggerated or wrong, the factual edges shaved off to make them more powerful for audiences."[675]

Job approval
See also: 2021, 2022, 2023, and 2024 opinion polling on the Joe Biden administration
According to Morning Consult polling, Biden maintained an approval rating above 50 percent in the first eight months of his presidency. In August 2021, it began to decline, and it reached the low forties by December.[676] This was attributed to the Afghanistan withdrawal, increasing hospitalizations from the Delta variant, high inflation and gas prices, disarray within the Democratic Party, and a general decline in popularity customary in politics.[677][678][679][680] According to Gallup, Biden averaged 41 percent approval in his second year in office,[681] and 39.8 percent in his third year.[682]

In February 2021, Gallup, Inc. reported that 98 percent of Democrats approved of Biden.[683][684] As of December 2023, that number had declined to 78 percent.[685] His approval rating among Republicans reached a high of 12 percent in February 2021 and again in July 2021.[683]

Biden ended 2023 with a job approval rating of 39 percent, the lowest of any modern U.S. president after three years in office.[685]

See also
2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries
2020 United States presidential debates
Cabinet of Joe Biden
Electoral history of Joe Biden
List of awards and honors received by Joe Biden
List of things named after Joe Biden
Bibliography of Joe Biden
Notes
 Biden held the chairmanship from January 3 to 20, then was succeeded by Jesse Helms until June 6, and thereafter held the position until 2003.
 Delaware's Democratic governor, Ruth Ann Minner, announced on November 24, 2008, that she would appoint Biden's longtime senior adviser Ted Kaufman to succeed Biden in the Senate.[182] Kaufman said he would serve only two years, until Delaware's special Senate election in 2010.[182] Biden's son Beau ruled himself out of the 2008 selection process due to his impending tour in Iraq with the Delaware Army National Guard.[183] He was a possible candidate for the 2010 special election, but in early 2010 said he would not run for the seat.[184]
 Kyrsten Sinema and Joe Manchin, whose seats were not up for election in 2022, left the Democratic Party and became independent politicians in December 2022 and May 2024, respectively. As a result, 47 Democrats (rather than 49), plus Angus King and Bernie Sanders, independents who caucus with Democrats, were in the Senate of the 118th United States Congress, on May 31, 2024. Manchin continues to caucus with Democrats while Sinema has opted to caucus with neither party but to align with the Democrats, bringing the Democratic Senate majority to 51 seats.[450][451][452]
 Attributed to multiple sources:[570][571][572][573]
 In 1981, President Ronald Reagan referred to the Armenian genocide in passing in a statement regarding The Holocaust, but never made a formal declaration recognizing it.[642][643]
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 "Presidential Job Approval Center". Gallup, Inc. Retrieved July 31, 2022.
 Jones, Jeffrey M. (February 4, 2021). "Biden Begins Term With 57% Job Approval". Gallup, Inc. Retrieved July 18, 2023.
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Works cited
Bronner, Ethan (1989). Battle for Justice: How the Bork Nomination Shook America. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-02690-0.
Gadsden, Brett (October 8, 2012). Between North and South: Delaware, Desegregation, and the Myth of American Sectionalism. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0797-2.
Mayer, Jane; Abramson, Jill (1994). Strange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-63318-2.
Wolffe, Richard (2009). Renegade: The Making of a President. New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-307-46312-8.
Taylor, Paul (1990). See How They Run: Electing the President in an Age of Mediaocracy. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-57059-4.
Witcover, Jules (2010). Joe Biden: A Life of Trial and Redemption. New York City: William Morrow. ISBN 978-0-06-179198-7.
Further reading
Barone, Michael; Cohen, Richard E. (2008). The Almanac of American Politics. Washington, D.C.: National Journal Group. ISBN 978-0-89234-116-0.
Levingston, Steven; Dyson, Michael (2019). Barack and Joe: The Making of an Extraordinary Partnership. New York: Hachette Books. ISBN 978-0-316-48788-7.
Moritz, Charles, ed. (1987). Current Biography Yearbook 1987. New York: H. W. Wilson Company.
O'Toole, Fintan, "Eldest Statesmen", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (January 18, 2024), pp. 17–19. "Biden's signature achievements as president [are] securing large-scale investment in infrastructure and in the transition to a carbon-free economy... [But t]here has been a relentless decline in absolute [economic] mobility from one generation to the next..." (p. 18.) "With the promised bridge to a new generation as yet unbuilt, time is not on Biden's side, or on the side of American democracy." (p. 19.)
Whipple, Chris (2023). The Fight of His Life: Inside Joe Biden's White House. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-1-9821-0643-0.
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Israel

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Coordinates: 31°N 35°E
Extended-protected article
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Israel (disambiguation).
State of Israel
מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל (Hebrew)
دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل (Arabic)
The flag of Israel – Star of David centred between two horizontal stripes of a Tallit (a Jewish prayer shawl)
Flag
Menorah surrounded by an olive branch on either side
Emblem
Anthem: הַתִּקְוָה (Hatīkvāh; "The Hope")
Duration: 1 minute and 15 seconds.1:15

Show globe
Map of Israel (Green Line)
Show all
Israel within internationally recognized borders shown in dark green; Israeli-occupied territories shown in light green
Capital
and largest city
Jerusalem
(limited recognition)[fn 1][fn 2]
31°47′N 35°13′E
Official language    Hebrew[8]
Recognized language    Arabic[fn 3]
Ethnic groups (2023)[12]    
73% Jews
21% Arabs
6% others
Religion (2016)[13]    
73% Judaism
33% Hiloni
24% Masorti
9% Dati
7% Haredi
18.1% Islam
1.9% Christianity
1.6% Druze
4.8% others
Demonym(s)    Israeli
Government    Unitary parliamentary republic
• President
Isaac Herzog
• Prime Minister
Benjamin Netanyahu
• Knesset Speaker
Amir Ohana
• Chief Justice
Uzi Vogelman (acting)
Legislature    Knesset
Establishment
• Declaration of independence
14 May 1948
• Admission to the United Nations
11 May 1949
• Basic Laws
1958–2018
Area
• Total
22,072 or 20,770[14][15] km2 (8,522 or 8,019 sq mi)[a] (149th)
• Water (%)
2.71[16]
Population
• 2024 estimate
9,900,000[17] (93rd)
• 2008 census
7,412,200[18][fn 4]
• Density
449/km2 (1,162.9/sq mi) (29th)
GDP (PPP)    2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $552.151 billion[19] (47th)
• Per capita
Increase $55,533[19] (29th)
GDP (nominal)    2024 estimate
• Total
Increase $530.664 billion[19] (29th)
• Per capita
Increase $53,372[19] (18th)
Gini (2018)    34.8[fn 4][20]
medium
HDI (2022)    Increase 0.915[21]
very high (25th)
Currency    New shekel (₪) (ILS)
Time zone    UTC+2:00 (IST)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+3:00 (IDT)
Date format    
יי-חח-שששש (AM)
dd-mm-yyyy (CE)
Driving side    right
Calling code    +972
ISO 3166 code    IL
Internet TLD    .il
 20,770 km2 is Israel within the Green Line. 22,072 km2 includes the occupied Golan Heights (c. 1,200 km2 (460 sq mi)) and East Jerusalem (c. 64 km2 (25 sq mi)).
Israel,[a] officially the State of Israel,[b] is a country in the Southern Levant, West Asia. It is bordered by Lebanon and Syria to the north, the West Bank and Jordan to the east, Egypt, the Gaza Strip and the Red Sea to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west.[22] Tel Aviv is the country's financial, economic, and technological center. Israel's governmental seat is in its proclaimed capital of Jerusalem, though recognition of Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem is limited internationally.[c][24]

Israel is located in a region known historically as Canaan, Palestine, and the Holy Land. In antiquity, it was home to Canaanite city-states, then Israelite and Judahite kingdoms, and is referred to as the Land of Israel in Jewish tradition. Situated at a continental crossroad, the region was then ruled by various empires.[25] Amid European antisemitism, the late 19th century saw the rise of Zionism, which sought a Jewish homeland. British occupation led to the establishment of Mandatory Palestine in 1920. Jewish immigration, combined with British colonial policy, led to intercommunal conflict between Jews and Arabs.[26][27] The 1947 UN Partition Plan triggered civil war between them.

The State of Israel declared its establishment on 14 May 1948. The next day, armies of neighboring Arab states invaded, starting the First Arab–Israeli War, known in Israel as the Independence War. The war saw the expulsion and flight of many Palestinians due to various causes.[28][29][30] Over the following decades, Israel received an influx of immigration from Jews who emigrated, fled, or were expelled from the Muslim world.[31][32] The 1949 Armistice Agreements established Israel's borders over most of the former Mandate territory.[33][34][35] The 1967 Six-Day War saw Israel occupy the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Egyptian Sinai Peninsula and Syrian Golan Heights. Israel has established and continues to expand settlements across the occupied territories, which is deemed illegal under international law, and has annexed East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, which is largely unrecognized internationally. Since the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt, returning the Sinai Peninsula, and Jordan, and into the 2020s has normalized relations with several Arab countries. However, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not succeeded. Israel has been internationally criticised in its occupation of the Palestinian territories, and been accused of committing war crimes and crimes against humanity against the Palestinians by human rights organizations and UN officials.

The country has a parliamentary system elected by proportional representation. The prime minister is head of government, and elected by the Knesset, a unicameral legislature.[36] Israel has one of the biggest economies in the Middle East,[37] it is one of the richest in the Middle East and Asia,[38][39][40] and an OECD member since 2010.[41] It has one of the highest standards of living in the Middle East and Asia, and ranks as one of the most advanced countries.[42][43][44]

Etymology
Further information: Israel (name) and Names of the Levant § Israel and Judea

The Merneptah Stele (13th century BCE). The majority of biblical archeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as Israel, the first instance of the name in the record.
Under the British Mandate (1920–1948), the whole region was known as Palestine.[45] Upon establishment in 1948, the country formally adopted the name State of Israel (Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'elⓘ [mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel]; Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]) after other proposed names including Land of Israel (Eretz Israel), Ever (from ancestor Eber), Zion, and Judea, were considered but rejected.[46] The name Israel was suggested by Ben-Gurion and passed by a vote of 6–3.[47] In the early weeks after establishment, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of the Israeli state.[48]

The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically been used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel and the entire Jewish people respectively.[49] The name Israel (Hebrew: Yīsrāʾēl; Septuagint Greek: Ἰσραήλ, Israēl, "El (God) persists/rules", though after Hosea 12:4 often interpreted as "struggle with God") refers to the patriarch Jacob who, according to the Hebrew Bible, was given the name after he successfully wrestled with the angel of the Lord.[50] The earliest known archaeological artefact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt (dated to the late 13th century BCE).[51]

History
Main article: History of Israel
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Israeli history.
Prehistory
Early hominin presence in the Levant, where Israel is located, dates back at least 1.5 million years based on the Ubeidiya prehistoric site.[52] The Skhul and Qafzeh hominins, dating back 120,000 years, are some of the earliest traces of anatomically modern humans outside of Africa.[53] The Natufian culture emerged by the 10th millennium BCE,[54] followed by the Ghassulian culture by around 4,500 BCE.[55]

Bronze and Iron Ages
Main article: History of ancient Israel and Judah
Further information: Canaan, Israelites, Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), and Kingdom of Judah
Early references to "Canaanites" and "Canaan" appear in Near Eastern and Egyptian texts (c. 2000 BCE); these populations were structured as politically independent city-states.[56][57] During the Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BCE), large parts of Canaan formed vassal states of the New Kingdom of Egypt.[58] As a result of the Late Bronze Age collapse, Canaan fell into chaos, and Egyptian control over the region collapsed.[59][60]

A people named Israel appear for the first time in the Merneptah Stele, an ancient Egyptian inscription which dates to about 1200 BCE.[61][62][fn 5][64] Ancestors of the Israelites are thought to have included ancient Semitic-speaking peoples native to this area.[65]: 78–79  Modern archaeological accounts suggest that the Israelites and their culture branched out of the Canaanite peoples[66] through the development of a distinct monolatristic—and later monotheistic—religion centered on Yahweh.[67][68] They spoke an archaic form of Hebrew, known as Biblical Hebrew.[69] Around the same time, the Philistines settled on the southern coastal plain.[70][71]

Map of Israel and Judah in the 9th century BCE
Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the narrative in the Torah and instead views the narrative as the Israelites' national myth.[72] However, some elements of these traditions do appear to have historical roots.[73][74][75] There is debate about the earliest existence of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah and their extent and power. While it is unclear if there was ever a United Kingdom of Israel,[76][77] historians and archaeologists agree that the northern Kingdom of Israel existed by ca. 900 BCE[78]: 169–195 [79] and the Kingdom of Judah by ca. 850 BCE.[80][81] The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two and soon developed into a regional power, with a capital at Samaria;[82][83][84] during the Omride dynasty, it controlled Samaria, Galilee, the upper Jordan Valley, the Sharon and large parts of the Transjordan.[85]

The Kingdom of Israel was conquered around 720 BCE by the Neo-Assyrian Empire.[86] The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital in Jerusalem, later became a client state of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then the Neo-Babylonian Empire. It is estimated that the region's population was around 400,000 in the Iron Age II.[87] In 587/6 BCE, following a revolt in Judah, King Nebuchadnezzar II besieged and destroyed Jerusalem and Solomon's Temple,[88][89] dissolved the kingdom and exiled much of the Judean elite to Babylon.[90] After capturing Babylon in 539 BCE, Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire, issued a proclamation allowing the exiled Judean population to return to Judah.[91][92]

Classical antiquity
Main article: Second Temple period
Further information: Yehud (province), Hasmonean dynasty, Herodian dynasty, Judaea (Roman province), and Syria Palaestina
The construction of the Second Temple was completed c. 520 BCE.[91] The Achaemenids ruled the region as the province of Yehud Medinata.[93] In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great of Macedon conquered the region as part of his campaign against the Achaemenid Empire. After his death, the area was controlled by the Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires as a part of Coele-Syria. Over the ensuing centuries, the Hellenization of the region led to cultural tensions that came to a head during the reign of Antiochus IV, giving rise to the Maccabean Revolt of 167 BCE. The civil unrest weakened Seleucid rule and in the late 2nd century the semi-autonomous Hasmonean Kingdom of Judea arose, eventually attaining full independence and expanding into neighboring regions.[94][95][96]

Masada fortress, the location of a 1st-century Roman siege
The Roman Republic invaded the region in 63 BCE, first taking control of Syria, and then intervening in the Hasmonean Civil War. The struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian factions in Judea led to the installation of Herod the Great as a dynastic vassal of Rome. In 6 CE, the area was annexed as the Roman province of Judaea; tensions with Roman rule led to a series of Jewish–Roman wars, resulting in widespread destruction. The First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple and a sizable portion of the population being killed or displaced.[97]

A second uprising known as the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) initially allowed the Jews to form an independent state, but the Romans brutally crushed the rebellion, devastating and depopulating Judea's countryside.[97][98][99][100][101] Jerusalem was rebuilt as a Roman colony (Aelia Capitolina), and the province of Judea was renamed Syria Palaestina.[102][103] Jews were expelled from the districts surrounding Jerusalem.[104][100] Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence and Galilee became its religious center.[105][106]

Late antiquity and the medieval period
Further information: Diocese of the East, Bilad al-Sham, and Kingdom of Jerusalem

3rd-century Kfar Bar'am synagogue in the Galilee[107]
With the transition to Byzantine rule under Emperor Constantine, Early Christianity displaced the more tolerant Roman Paganism.[108][109] A series of laws were passed that discriminated against Jews and Judaism, and Jews were persecuted by both the church and the authorities.[109] Many Jews had emigrated to flourishing Diaspora communities,[110] while locally there was both Christian immigration and local conversion. By the middle of the 5th century, there was a Christian majority.[111][112] Towards the end of the 5th century, Samaritan revolts erupted, continuing until the late 6th century and resulting in a large decrease in the Samaritan population.[113] After the Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem and the short-lived Jewish revolt against Heraclius in 614 CE, the Byzantine Empire reconsolidated control of the area in 628.[114]

In 634–641 CE, the Rashidun Caliphate conquered the Levant.[110][115][116] Over the next six centuries, control of the region transferred between the Umayyad, Abbasid, Fatimid caliphates, and subsequently the Seljuks and Ayyubid dynasties.[117] The population drastically decreased during the following several centuries, dropping from an estimated 1 million during Roman and Byzantine periods to about 300,000 by the early Ottoman period, and there was a steady process of Arabization and Islamization.[116][115][118][87][25] The end of the 11th century brought the Crusades, papally-sanctioned incursions of Christian crusaders intent on wresting Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim control and establishing Crusader States.[119] The Ayyubids pushed back the crusaders before Muslim rule was fully restored by the Mamluk sultans of Egypt in 1291.[120]

Modern period and the emergence of Zionism
Main articles: Ottoman Syria, Jerusalem Sanjak, and Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem
Further information: Old Yishuv and Zionism

Jews at the Western Wall in the 1870s
In 1516, the Ottoman Empire conquered the region and ruled it as part of Ottoman Syria.[121] Two violent incidents took place against Jews, the 1517 Safed attacks and the 1517 Hebron attacks, after the Turkish Ottomans ousted the Mamluks during the Ottoman–Mamluk War.[122][123] Under the Ottoman Empire, the Levant was fairly cosmopolitan, with religious freedoms for Christians, Muslims, and Jews. In 1561 the Ottoman sultan invited Sephardi Jews escaping the Spanish Inquisition to settle in and rebuild the city of Tiberias.[124][125]

Under the Ottoman Empire's millet system, Christians and Jews were considered dhimmi (meaning "protected") under Ottoman law in exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of the jizya tax.[126][127] Non-Muslim Ottoman subjects faced geographic and lifestyle restrictions, though these were not always enforced.[128][129][130] The millet system organized non-Muslims into autonomous communities on the basis of religion.[131]

The First Zionist Congress (1897) in Basel, Switzerland
Since the existence of the Jewish diaspora, many Jews have aspired to return to "Zion".[132] The Jewish population of Palestine from the Ottoman rule to the beginning of the Zionist movement, known as the Old Yishuv, comprised a minority and fluctuated in size. During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in the Four Holy Cities—Jerusalem, Tiberias, Hebron, and Safed—and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem.[133] A 1660 Druze revolt against the Ottomans destroyed Safed and Tiberias.[121] In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European Jews who were opponents of Hasidism, known as the Perushim, settled in Palestine.[134][135]

In the late 18th century, local Arab Sheikh Zahir al-Umar created a de facto independent Emirate in the Galilee. Ottoman attempts to subdue the Sheikh failed. After Zahir's death the Ottomans regained control of the area. In 1799, governor Jazzar Pasha repelled an assault on Acre by Napoleon's troops, prompting the French to abandon the Syrian campaign.[136] In 1834, a revolt by Palestinian Arab peasants against Egyptian conscription and taxation policies under Muhammad Ali was suppressed; Muhammad Ali's army retreated and Ottoman rule was restored with British support in 1840.[137] The Tanzimat reforms were implemented across the Ottoman Empire.

The first wave of modern Jewish migration to Ottoman-ruled Palestine, known as the First Aliyah, began in 1881, as Jews fled pogroms in Eastern Europe.[138] The 1882 May Laws increased economic discrimination against Jews, and restricted where they could live.[139][140] In response, political Zionism took form, a movement that sought to establish a Jewish state in the Land of Israel, thus offering a solution to the Jewish question of the European states.[141]

The Second Aliyah (1904–1914) began after the Kishinev pogrom; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half left eventually. Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly Orthodox Jews.[142] The Second Aliyah included Zionist socialist groups who established the kibbutz movement based on the idea of establishing a separate Jewish economy based exclusively on Jewish labor.[143][144] Those of the Second Aliyah who became leaders of the Yishuv in the coming decades believed that the Jewish settler economy should not depend on Arab labor. This would be a dominant source of antagonism with the Arab population, with the new Yishuv's nationalist ideology overpowering its socialist one.[145] Though the immigrants of the Second Aliyah largely sought to create communal Jewish agricultural settlements, Tel Aviv was established as the first planned Jewish town in 1909. Jewish armed militias emerged during this period, the first being Bar-Giora in 1907. Two years later, the larger Hashomer organization was founded as its replacement.

British Mandate for Palestine
Main article: Mandatory Palestine
Further information: Yishuv, Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine, and 1948 Palestine war
See also: Balfour Declaration, United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, and Jewish land purchase in Palestine
Chaim Weizmann's efforts to garner British support for the Zionist movement eventually secured the Balfour Declaration (1917),[146] stating Britain's support for the creation of a Jewish "national home" in Palestine.[147][148] Weizmann's interpretation of the declaration was that negotiations on the future of the country were to happen directly between Britain and the Jews, excluding Arabs. The years that followed would see Jewish-Arab relations in Palestine deteriorate dramatically.[149]

In 1918, the Jewish Legion, primarily Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British conquest of Palestine.[150] In 1920, the territory was divided between Britain and France under the mandate system, and the British-administered area (including modern Israel) was named Mandatory Palestine.[120][151][152] Arab opposition to British rule and Jewish immigration led to the 1920 Palestine riots and the formation of a Jewish militia known as the Haganah as an outgrowth of Hashomer, from which the Irgun and Lehi paramilitaries later split.[153] In 1922, the League of Nations granted Britain the Mandate for Palestine under terms which included the Balfour Declaration with its promise to the Jews, and with similar provisions regarding the Arab Palestinians.[154] The population of the area was predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11%,[155] and Arab Christians about 9.5% of the population.[156]

"Jews and Arabs in Grim Struggle for Holy Land", article from 1938
The Third (1919–1923) and Fourth Aliyahs (1924–1929) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine. The rise of Nazism and the increasing persecution of Jews in 1930s Europe led to the Fifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This was a major cause of the Arab revolt of 1936–39, which was suppressed by British security forces and Zionist militias. Several hundred British security personnel and Jews were killed. 5,032 Arabs were killed, 14,760 were wounded, and 12,622 were detained.[157][158][159] An estimated ten percent of the adult male Palestinian Arab population was killed, wounded, imprisoned or exiled.[160]

The British introduced restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine with the White Paper of 1939. With countries around the world turning away Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust, a clandestine movement known as Aliyah Bet was organized to bring Jews to Palestine. By the end of World War II, 31% of the total population of Palestine was Jewish.[161] The UK found itself facing a Jewish insurgency over immigration restrictions and continued conflict with the Arab community over limit levels. The Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in an armed struggle against British rule.[162] The Haganah attempted to bring tens of thousands of Jewish refugees and Holocaust survivors to Palestine by ship in a programme called Aliyah Bet. Most of the ships were intercepted by the Royal Navy and the refugees placed in detention camps in Atlit and Cyprus.[163][164]

UN Map, "Palestine plan of partition with economic union"
On 22 July 1946, Irgun bombed the British administrative headquarters for Palestine, killing 91.[165][166][167][168][169][170] The attack was a response to Operation Agatha (a series of raids, including one on the Jewish Agency, by the British) and was the deadliest directed at the British during the Mandate era.[169][170] The Jewish insurgency continued throughout 1946 and 1947 despite concerted efforts by the British military and Palestine Police Force to suppress it. British efforts to mediate a negotiated solution with Jewish and Arab representatives also failed as the Jews were unwilling to accept any solution that did not involve a Jewish state and suggested a partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, while the Arabs were adamant that a Jewish state in any part of Palestine was unacceptable and that the only solution was a unified Palestine under Arab rule. In February 1947, the British referred the Palestine issue to the newly formed United Nations. On 15 May 1947, the UN General Assembly resolved that a Special Committee be created "to prepare ... a report on the question of Palestine".[171] The Report of the Committee[172] proposed a plan to replace the British Mandate with "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem [...] the last to be under an International Trusteeship System".[173] Meanwhile, the Jewish insurgency continued and peaked in July 1947, with a series of widespread guerrilla raids culminating in the Sergeants affair, in which the Irgun took two British sergeants hostage as attempted leverage against the planned execution of three Irgun operatives. After the executions were carried out, the Irgun killed the two British soldiers, hanged their bodies from trees, and left a booby trap at the scene which injured a British soldier. The incident caused widespread outrage in the UK.[174] In September 1947, the British cabinet decided to evacuate Palestine as the Mandate was no longer tenable.[175]

On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 (II).[176] The plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed in the report of 3 September. The Jewish Agency, the recognized representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan, which assigned 55–56% of Mandatory Palestine to the Jews. At the time, the Jews were about a third of the population and owned around 6–7% of the land. Arabs constituted the majority and owned about 20% of the land, with the remainder held by the Mandate authorities or foreign landowners.[177][178][179][180][181][182][183] The Arab League and Arab Higher Committee of Palestine rejected it,[184] and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition.[185][186] On 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, and riots broke out in Jerusalem.[187] The situation spiraled into a civil war. Colonial Secretary Arthur Creech Jones announced that the British Mandate would end on 15 May 1948, at which point the British would evacuate. During this period 250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled, due to numerous factors.[188]

State of Israel
Main article: History of Israel (1948–present)
Establishment and early years
Further information: Israeli Declaration of Independence

David Ben-Gurion declaring the establishment of Israel on 14 May 1948
On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel".[189] The only reference in the text of the Declaration to the borders of the new state is the use of the term Eretz-Israel ("Land of Israel").[citation needed] The following day, the armies of four Arab countries—Egypt, Syria, Transjordan and Iraq—entered what had been Mandatory Palestine, launching the 1948 Arab–Israeli War;[190][191][192] contingents from Yemen, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Sudan joined the war.[193][194] The apparent purpose of the invasion was to prevent the establishment of the Jewish state; some Arab leaders talked about "driving the Jews into the sea".[182][195][196] The Arab league stated the invasion was to restore order and prevent further bloodshed.[197]

After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established.[198] Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip. Over 700,000 Palestinians were expelled by or fled by Zionist militias and the Israeli military—what would become known in Arabic as the Nakba ('catastrophe').[199] The events also led to the destruction of most of Palestine's predominantly Arab population's society, culture, identity, political rights, and national aspirations. Some 156,000 remained and became Arab citizens of Israel.[200]

Raising of the Ink Flag on 10 March 1949, marking the end of the 1948 war
Israel was admitted as a member of the UN on 11 May 1949.[201] In the early years of the state, the Labor Zionist movement led by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics.[202][203] Immigration to Israel during the late 1940s and early 1950s was aided by the Israeli Immigration Department and the non-government sponsored Mossad LeAliyah Bet (lit. "Institute for Immigration B").[204] The latter engaged in clandestine operations in countries, particularly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, where the lives of Jews were believed to be in danger and exit was difficult. Mossad LeAliyah Bet was disbanded in 1953.[205] The immigration was in accordance with the One Million Plan. Some immigrants held Zionist beliefs or came for the promise of a better life, while others moved to escape persecution or were expelled.[206][207]

An influx of Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab and Muslim countries to Israel during the first three years increased the number of Jews from 700,000 to 1,400,000. By 1958, the population had risen to two million.[208] Between 1948 and 1970, approximately 1,150,000 Jewish refugees relocated to Israel.[209] Some new immigrants arrived as refugees and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot; by 1952, over 200,000 people were living in these tent cities.[210] Jews of European background were often treated more favorably than Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries—housing units reserved for the latter were often re-designated for the former, so Jews newly arrived from Arab lands generally ended up staying longer in transit camps.[211][212] During this period, food, clothes and furniture were rationed in what became known as the austerity period. The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea that Israel could accept monetary compensation for the Holocaust.[213]

Arab–Israeli conflict
Main article: Arab–Israeli conflict
During the 1950s, Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, nearly always against civilians,[214] mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip,[215] leading to several Israeli reprisal operations. In 1956, the UK and France aimed at regaining control of the Suez Canal, which Egypt had nationalized. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, together with increasing Fedayeen attacks against Israel's southern population and recent Arab threatening statements, prompted Israel to attack Egypt.[216][217][218] Israel joined a secret alliance with the UK and France and overran the Sinai Peninsula in the Suez Crisis, but was pressured to withdraw by the UN in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights.[219][220][221] The war resulted in significant reduction of Israeli border infiltration.[222]

Duration: 1 minute and 14 seconds.1:14Subtitles available.CC
U.S. newsreel on the trial of Adolf Eichmann
In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Argentina and brought him to Israel for trial.[223] Eichmann remains the only person executed in Israel by conviction in an Israeli civilian court.[224] In 1963 Israel was engaged in a diplomatic standoff with the United States due to the Israeli nuclear programme.[225][226]

Since 1964, Arab countries, concerned over Israeli plans to divert waters of the Jordan River into the coastal plain,[227] had been trying to divert the headwaters to deprive Israel of water resources, provoking tensions between Israel on the one hand, and Syria and Lebanon on the other. Arab nationalists led by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser refused to recognize Israel and called for its destruction.[228][229][230] By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces.[231]

Territory held by Israel:
  before the Six-Day War
  after the war
The Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt in 1982.
In May 1967, Egypt massed its army near the border with Israel, expelled UN peacekeepers, stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and blocked Israel's access to the Red Sea.[232][233][234] Other Arab states mobilized their forces.[235] Israel reiterated that these actions were a casus belli and launched a pre-emptive strike against Egypt in June. Jordan, Syria and Iraq attacked Israel. In the Six-Day War, Israel captured and occupied the West Bank from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria.[236] Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating East Jerusalem. The 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories.[237]

Following the 1967 war and the "Three Nos" resolution of the Arab League, Israel faced attacks from the Egyptians in the Sinai Peninsula during the 1967–1970 War of Attrition, and from Palestinian groups targeting Israelis in the occupied territories, globally, and in Israel. Most important among the Palestinian and Arab groups was the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".[238] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched attacks[239][240] against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world,[241] including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organizers of the massacre, a bombing and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon.

On 6 October 1973, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, opening the Yom Kippur War. The war ended on 25 October with Israel repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering great losses.[242] An internal inquiry exonerated the government of responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister Golda Meir to resign.[243][better source needed] In July 1976, an airliner was hijacked in flight from Israel to France by Palestinian guerrillas; Israeli commandos rescued 102 out of 106 Israeli hostages.

Peace process
Main article: Israeli–Palestinian peace process
The 1977 Knesset elections marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as Menachem Begin's Likud party took control from the Labor Party.[244] Later that year, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip to Israel and spoke before the Knesset in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.[245] Sadat and Begin signed the Camp David Accords (1978) and the Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1979).[246] In return, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[246]

On 11 March 1978, a PLO guerilla raid from Lebanon led to the Coastal Road massacre. Israel responded by launching an invasion of southern Lebanon to destroy PLO bases. Most PLO fighters withdrew, but Israel was able to secure southern Lebanon until a UN force and the Lebanese army could take over. The PLO soon resumed its insurgency against Israel, and Israel carried out numerous retaliatory attacks.

Meanwhile, Begin's government provided incentives for Israelis to settle in the occupied West Bank, increasing friction with the Palestinians there.[247] The Jerusalem Law (1980) was believed by some to reaffirm Israel's 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree, and reignited international controversy over the status of the city. No Israeli legislation has defined the territory of Israel and no act specifically included East Jerusalem therein.[248] In 1981 Israel effectively annexed the Golan Heights.[249] The international community largely rejected these moves, with the UN Security Council declaring both the Jerusalem Law and the Golan Heights Law null and void.[250][251] Several waves of Ethiopian Jews immigrated to Israel since the 1980s, while between 1990 and 1994, immigration from the post-Soviet states increased Israel's population by twelve percent.[252]

On 7 June 1981, during the Iran–Iraq War, the Israeli air force destroyed Iraq's sole nuclear reactor, then under construction, in order to impede the Iraqi nuclear weapons program.[253] Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon to destroy the PLO bases.[254] In the first six days, the Israelis destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians. An Israeli government inquiry (the Kahan Commission) held Begin and several Israeli generals indirectly responsible for the Sabra and Shatila massacre and held Defense minister Ariel Sharon as bearing "personal responsibility".[255] Sharon was forced to resign.[256] In 1985, Israel responded to a Palestinian terrorist attack in Cyprus by bombing the PLO headquarters in Tunisia. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained a borderland buffer zone in southern Lebanon until 2000, from where Israeli forces engaged in conflict with Hezbollah. The First Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,[257] broke out in 1987, with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Over the following six years, the Intifada became more organized and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation. Over a thousand people were killed.[258] During the 1991 Gulf War, the PLO supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi missile attacks against Israel. Despite public outrage, Israel heeded American calls to refrain from hitting back.[259][260]

Shimon Peres (left) with Yitzhak Rabin (center) and King Hussein of Jordan (right), prior to signing the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994
In 1992, Yitzhak Rabin became prime minister following an election in which his party called for compromise with Israel's neighbours.[261][262] The following year, Shimon Peres on behalf of Israel, and Mahmoud Abbas for the PLO, signed the Oslo Accords, which gave the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) the right to govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[263] The PLO also recognized Israel's right to exist and pledged an end to terrorism.[264][better source needed] In 1994, the Israel–Jordan peace treaty was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[265] Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements[266] and checkpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions.[267] Israeli public support for the Accords waned after Palestinian suicide attacks.[268] In November 1995, Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by Yigal Amir, a far-right Jew who opposed the Accords.[269]

During Benjamin Netanyahu's premiership at the end of the 1990s, Israel agreed to withdraw from Hebron,[270] though this was never ratified or implemented,[271] and signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the PNA.[272] Ehud Barak, elected Prime Minister in 1999, withdrew forces from Southern Lebanon and conducted negotiations with PNA Chairman Yasser Arafat and U.S. President Bill Clinton at the 2000 Camp David Summit. Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a Palestinian state, including the entirety of the Gaza Strip and over 90% of the West Bank with Jerusalem as a shared capital.[273] Each side blamed the other for the failure of the talks.

21st century
Further information: Iran–Israel proxy conflict and Israel–Hamas war

This section needs to be updated. The reason given is: the events of the last two decades outside of conflict is barely covered. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (March 2023)

Rocket attacks fired at Israel from the Gaza Strip, 2001–2021[274]
In late 2000, after a controversial visit by Likud leader Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount, the 4.5-year Second Intifada began. Suicide bombings were a recurrent feature.[275] Some commentators contend that the Intifada was pre-planned by Arafat due to the collapse of peace talks.[276][277][278][279] Sharon became prime minister in a 2001 election; he carried out his plan to unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip and spearheaded the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier,[280] ending the Intifada.[281] Between 2000 and 2008, 1,063 Israelis, 5,517 Palestinians and 64 foreign citizens were killed.[282]

In 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a cross-border abduction of two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month-long Second Lebanon War.[283][284] In 2007, the Israeli Air Force destroyed a nuclear reactor in Syria. In 2008, a ceasefire between Hamas and Israel collapsed, resulting in the three-week Gaza War.[285][286] In what Israel described as a response to over a hundred Palestinian rocket attacks on southern Israeli cities,[287] Israel began an operation in the Gaza Strip in 2012, lasting eight days.[288] Israel started another operation in Gaza following an escalation of rocket attacks by Hamas in July 2014.[289] In May 2021, another round of fighting took place in Gaza and Israel, lasting eleven days.[290]

By the 2010s, increasing regional cooperation between Israel and Arab League countries have been established, culminating in the signing of the Abraham Accords. The Israeli security situation shifted from the traditional Arab–Israeli conflict towards the Iran–Israel proxy conflict and direct confrontation with Iran during the Syrian civil war. On 7 October 2023, Palestinian militant groups from Gaza, led by Hamas, launched a series of coordinated attacks on Israel, leading to the start of the Israel–Hamas war.[291] On that day, approximately 1300 Israelis, predominantly civilians, were killed in communities near the Gaza Strip border and during a music festival. Over 200 hostages were kidnapped and taken to the Gaza Strip.[292][293][294]

Geography
Main article: Geography of Israel
See also: Agriculture in Israel, Wildlife of Israel, List of forests in Israel, and Yatir Forest
Geography of IsraelvteGalileeCoastal
plainJudaean
MountainsJordan
ValleyNegevLevantine Sea
(Mediterranean)KinneretDead
SeaGulf
of EilatWest
BankGaza
StripLebanonSyriaJordanEgypt

Satellite images of Israel and neighboring territories during the day and night
Israel is located in the Levant area of the Fertile Crescent. The country is at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank to the east, and Egypt and the Gaza Strip to the southwest. It lies between latitudes 29° and 34° N, and longitudes 34° and 36° E.

The sovereign territory of Israel (according to the demarcation lines of the 1949 Armistice Agreements and excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War) is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019 sq mi), of which two percent is water.[295] However Israel is so narrow (100 km at its widest, compared to 400 km from north to south) that the exclusive economic zone in the Mediterranean is double the land area of the country.[296] The total area under Israeli law, including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522 sq mi),[297] and the total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partially Palestinian-governed territory of the West Bank, is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733 sq mi).[298]

Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev desert in the south to the inland fertile Jezreel Valley, mountain ranges of the Galilee, Carmel and toward the Golan in the north. The Israeli coastal plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to most of the nation's population.[299] East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,039 mi) Great Rift Valley. The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.[300] Further south is the Arabah, ending with the Gulf of Eilat, part of the Red Sea. Makhtesh, or "erosion cirques" are unique to the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula, the largest being the Makhtesh Ramon at 38 km in length.[301] Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of the countries in the Mediterranean Basin.[302] Israel contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests, Arabian Desert, and Mesopotamian shrub desert.[303]

Forests accounted for 8.5% of the country's area in 2016, up from 2% in 1948, as the result of a large-scale forest planting program by the Jewish National Fund.[304][305]

Tectonics and seismicity
Further information: List of earthquakes in the Levant
The Jordan Rift Valley is the result of tectonic movements within the Dead Sea Transform (DSF) fault system. The DSF forms the transform boundary between the African Plate to the west and the Arabian Plate to the east. The Golan Heights and all of Jordan are part of the Arabian Plate, while the Galilee, West Bank, Coastal Plain, and Negev along with the Sinai Peninsula are on the African Plate. This tectonic disposition leads to a relatively high seismic activity. The entire Jordan Valley segment is thought to have ruptured repeatedly, for instance during the last two major earthquakes along this structure in 749 and 1033. The deficit in slip that has built up since the 1033 event is sufficient to cause an earthquake of Mw ~7.4.[306]

The most catastrophic known earthquakes occurred in 31 BCE, 363, 749, and 1033 CE, that is every ca. 400 years on average.[307] Destructive earthquakes leading to serious loss of life strike about every 80 years.[308] While stringent construction regulations are in place and recently built structures are earthquake-safe, as of 2007 many public buildings as well as 50,000 residential buildings did not meet the new standards and were "expected to collapse" if exposed to a strong earthquake.[308]

Climate
Further information: Climate change in Israel

The projections of the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report show clearly the impacts of climate change on Israel even at 2 degrees of warming.
Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. Coastal areas, such as those of Tel Aviv and Haifa, have a typical Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The area of Beersheba and the Northern Negev have a semi-arid climate with hot summers, cool winters, and fewer rainy days. The Southern Negev and the Arava areas have a desert climate with very hot, dry summers, and mild winters with few days of rain. The highest temperature in the world outside Africa and North America as of 2021, 54 °C (129 °F), was recorded in 1942 in the Tirat Zvi kibbutz in the northern Jordan River valley.[309][310] Mountainous regions can be windy and cold, and areas at elevation of 750 metres (2,460 ft) or more (same elevation as Jerusalem) usually receive at least one snowfall each year.[311] From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.[312][313]

There are four different phytogeographic regions in Israel, due to the country's location between the temperate and tropical zones. For this reason, the flora and fauna are extremely diverse. There are 2,867 known species of plants in Israel. Of these, at least 253 species are introduced and non-native.[314] There are 380 Israeli nature reserves.[315]

With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, including drip irrigation.[316][better source needed] The considerable sunlight available for solar energy makes Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita—practically every house uses solar panels for water heating.[317] The Israeli Ministry of Environmental Protection has reported that climate change "will have a decisive impact on all areas of life", particularly for vulnerable populations.[318]

Government and politics
Main articles: Israeli system of government and Politics of Israel
See also: Criticism of Israel

President
Isaac Herzog

Prime Minister
Benjamin Netanyahu

The Knesset chamber, home to the Israeli parliament
Israel has a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority becomes the prime minister—usually this is the chair of the largest party. The prime minister is the head of government and of cabinet.[319][320] The president is head of state, with limited and largely ceremonial duties.[319]

Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the Knesset. Membership of the Knesset is based on proportional representation of political parties,[321][better source needed] with a 3.25% electoral threshold, which in practice has resulted in coalition governments. Residents of Israeli settlements in the West Bank are eligible to vote[322] and after the 2015 election, 10 of the 120 members of the Knesset (8%) were settlers.[323] Parliamentary elections are scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or a no-confidence vote can dissolve a government earlier.[36] The first Arab-led party was established in 1988[324] and as of 2022, Arab-led parties hold about 10% of seats.[325] The Basic Law: The Knesset (1958) and its amendments prevent a party list from running for election to the Knesset if its objectives or actions include the "negation of the existence of the State of Israel as the state of the Jewish people".

The Basic Laws of Israel function as an uncodified constitution. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish and democratic state, and the nation-state of exclusively the Jewish people.[326] In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws.[295][327]

Israel has no official religion,[328][329][330] but the definition of the state as "Jewish and democratic" creates a strong connection with Judaism. On 19 July 2018, the Knesset passed a Basic Law that characterizes the State of Israel as principally a "Nation State of the Jewish People", and Hebrew as its official language. The bill ascribes, an undefined, "special status" to the Arabic language.[331] The same bill gives Jews a unique right to national self-determination, and views the developing of Jewish settlement in the country as "a national interest", empowering the government to "take steps to encourage, advance and implement this interest".[332]

Legal system
Main articles: Judiciary of Israel and Israeli law

Supreme Court of Israel, Givat Ram, Jerusalem
Israel has a three-tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving as both appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel's six districts. The third and highest tier is the Supreme Court, located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against the decisions of state authorities.[333]

Israel's legal system combines three legal traditions: English common law, civil law, and Jewish law.[295] It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system. Court cases are decided by professional judges with no role for juries.[334][better source needed] Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. The election of judges is carried out by a selection committee chaired by the justice minister (currently Yariv Levin).[335] Israel's Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties in Israel. The United Nations Human Rights Council and Israeli human rights organization Adalah have highlighted that this law does not in fact contain a general provision for equality and non-discrimination.[336][337] As a result of "Enclave law", large portions of Israeli civil law are applied to Israeli settlements and Israeli residents in the occupied territories.[338]

Administrative divisions
Main article: Districts of Israel
Districts of IsraelCentralHaifaJerusalemNorthernSouthernTel AvivJudea
and
Samaria
Areavte
The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known as mehozot (Hebrew: מחוזות; sg.: mahoz)—Center, Haifa, Jerusalem, North, South, and Tel Aviv districts, as well as the Judea and Samaria Area in the West Bank. All of the Judea and Samaria Area and parts of the Jerusalem and Northern districts are not recognized internationally as part of Israel. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known as nafot (Hebrew: נפות; sg.: nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.[339]

District    Capital    Largest city    Population, 2021[340]
Jews    Arabs    Total    note
Jerusalem    Jerusalem    66%    32%    1,209,700    a
North    Nof HaGalil    Nazareth    42%    54%    1,513,600    
Haifa    Haifa    67%    25%    1,092,700    
Center    Ramla    Rishon LeZion    87%    8%    2,304,300    
Tel Aviv    Tel Aviv    92%    2%    1,481,400    
South    Beersheba    Ashdod    71%    22%    1,386,000    
Judea and Samaria Area    Ariel    Modi'in Illit    98%    0%    465,400    b
^a Including 361,700 Arabs and 233,900 Jews in East Jerusalem, as of 2020.[341]
^b Israeli citizens only.
Israeli citizenship law
Main article: Israeli citizenship law
The two primary pieces of legislation relating to Israeli citizenship are the 1950 Law of Return and 1952 Citizenship Law. The law of return grants Jews the unrestricted right to immigrate to Israel and obtain Israeli citizenship. Individuals born within the country receive birthright citizenship if at least one parent is a citizen.[342]

Israeli law defines Jewish nationality as distinct from Israeli nationality, and the Supreme Court of Israel has ruled that an Israeli nationality does not exist.[343][344] Israeli law defines a Jewish national as any person practicing Judaism and their descendants.[343] Legislation has defined Israel as the nation state of the Jewish people since 2018.[345]

Israeli-occupied territories
Main articles: Israeli-occupied territories, Israeli occupation of the West Bank, and Golan Heights
Overview of administration and sovereignty in Israel, the Palestinian territories and the Golan Heights
This box: viewtalkedit
Area    Administered by    Recognition of governing authority    Sovereignty claimed by    Recognition of claim
Gaza Strip    Palestinian National Authority (de jure) Controlled by Hamas (de facto)    Witnesses to the Oslo II Accord    State of Palestine    145 UN member states
West Bank    Palestinian enclaves (Areas A and B)    Palestinian National Authority and Israeli military
Area C    Israeli enclave law (Israeli settlements) and Israeli military (Palestinians under Israeli occupation)
East Jerusalem    Israeli administration    Honduras, Guatemala, Nauru, and the United States    China, Russia
West Jerusalem    Russia, Czech Republic, Honduras, Guatemala, Nauru, and the United States    United Nations as an international city along with East Jerusalem    Various UN member states and the European Union; joint sovereignty also widely supported
Golan Heights    United States    Syria    All UN member states except the United States
Israel (Green Line border)    165 UN member states    Israel    165 UN member states
vte
Israeli-occupied territories
Ongoing    
West Bank occupation
Enclaves within the West Bank
Displacement in East Jerusalem
Gaza Strip occupation
Gaza Strip blockade
Golan Heights occupation
Historical    
Southern Lebanon occupation
Sinai Peninsula occupation
Proposed    
Jordan Valley annexation
West Bank annexation

Map of Israel showing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights
In 1967, as a result of the Six-Day War, Israel captured and occupied the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Israel also captured the Sinai Peninsula, but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty.[246] Between 1982 and 2000, Israel occupied part of southern Lebanon, in what was known as the Security Belt. Since Israel's capture of these territories, Israeli settlements and military installations have been built within each of them, except Lebanon.

The Golan Heights and East Jerusalem have been fully incorporated into Israel under Israeli law, but not under international law. Israel has applied civilian law to both areas and granted their inhabitants permanent residency status and the ability to apply for citizenship. The UN Security Council has declared the annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and void" and continues to view the territories as occupied.[346][347] The status of East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult issue in negotiations between Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians.

Israeli West Bank barrier is a separation barrier built by Israel along the Green Line and inside parts of the West Bank.
The West Bank excluding East Jerusalem is known in Israeli law as the Judea and Samaria Area. The almost 400,000 Israeli settlers residing in the area are considered part of Israel's population, have Knesset representation, are subject to a large part of Israel's civil and criminal laws, and their output is considered part of Israel's economy.[348][fn 4] The land itself is not considered part of Israel under Israeli law, as Israel has consciously refrained from annexing the territory, without ever relinquishing its legal claim to the land or defining a border.[348] Israeli political opposition to annexation is primarily due to the perceived "demographic threat" of incorporating the West Bank's Palestinian population into Israel.[348] Outside of the Israeli settlements, the West Bank remains under direct Israeli military rule, and Palestinians in the area cannot become Israeli citizens. The international community maintains that Israel does not have sovereignty in the West Bank, and considers Israel's control of the area to be the longest military occupation in modern history.[351] The West Bank was occupied and annexed by Jordan in 1950, following the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has since ceded its claim to the territory to the PLO. The population are mainly Palestinians, including refugees of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.[352] From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the Israel–PLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks during the Second Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier.[353] When completed, approximately 13% of the barrier will be constructed on the Green Line or in Israel with 87% inside the West Bank.[354][355]

Israel's claim of universal suffrage has been questioned due to its blurred territorial boundaries and its simultaneous extension of voting rights to Israeli settlers in the occupied territories and denial of voting rights to their Palestinian neighbours, as well as the alleged ethnocratic nature of the state.[356][357]

The Gaza Strip is considered to be a "foreign territory" under Israeli law. Israel and Egypt operate a land, air, and sea blockade of the Gaza Strip. The Gaza Strip was occupied by Israel after 1967. In 2005, as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, Israel removed its settlers and forces from the territory but continues to maintain control of its airspace and waters. The international community, including numerous international humanitarian organizations and UN bodies, consider Gaza to remain occupied.[358][359][360][361][362] Following the 2007 Battle of Gaza, when Hamas assumed power in the Gaza Strip,[363] Israel tightened control of the Gaza crossings along its border, as well as by sea and air, and prevented persons from entering and exiting except for isolated cases it deemed humanitarian.[363] Gaza has a border with Egypt, and an agreement between Israel, the EU, and the PA governs how border crossings take place.[364] The application of democracy to its Palestinian citizens, and the selective application of Israeli democracy in the Israeli-controlled Palestinian territories, has been criticized.[365][366]

International opinion
See also: Israeli war crimes
The International Court of Justice said, in its 2004 advisory opinion on the legality of the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier, that the lands captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, including East Jerusalem, are occupied territory, and found that the construction of the wall within the occupied Palestinian territory to violate international law.[367] Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of UN Security Council Resolution 242, which emphasizes "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war", and calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states ("Land for peace").[368][369][370] Israel has been criticized for engaging in systematic and widespread violations of human rights in the occupied territories, including the occupation itself,[371] and war crimes against civilians.[372][373][374][375] The allegations include violations of international humanitarian law[376] by the UN Human Rights Council,[377] The U.S. State Department has called reports of abuses of significant human rights of Palestinians "credible" both within Israel[378] and the occupied territories.[379] Amnesty International and other NGOs have documented mass arbitrary arrests, torture, unlawful killings, systemic abuses and impunity[380][381][382][383] in tandem with a denial of the right to Palestinian self-determination.[384][385][386][387][388] Prime Minister Netanyahu has defended the country's security forces for protecting the innocent from terrorists[389] and expressed contempt for what he describes as a lack of concern about the human rights violations committed by "criminal killers".[390]

The international community widely regards Israeli settlements in the occupied territories illegal under international law.[391] United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334 (passed 2016) states that Israel's settlement activity constitutes a "flagrant violation" of international law and demands that Israel stop such activity and fulfill its obligations as an occupying power under the Fourth Geneva Convention.[392] A United Nations special rapporteur concluded that settlement program was a war crime under the Rome Statute,[393] and Amnesty International found that the settlement program constitutes an illegal transfer of civilians into occupied territory and "pillage", which is prohibited by the Hague Conventions and Geneva Conventions as well as being a war crime under the Rome Statute.[394]

Apartheid accusations
Main article: Israel and apartheid
Israel's treatment of the Palestinians within the occupied territories have drawn widespread accusations that it is guilty of apartheid, a crime against humanity under the Rome Statute and the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid.[395][396] The Washington Post's 2021 survey of scholars and academic experts on the Middle East found an increase from 59% to 65% of these scholars describing Israel as a "one-state reality akin to apartheid".[397][398] The claim that Israel's policies for Palestinians within Israel amount to apartheid has been affirmed by Israeli human rights organization B'tselem and international human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.[396][399] Israeli human rights organization Yesh Din has also accused Israel of apartheid.[399] Amnesty's claim was criticised by politicians and representatives from Israel and its closest allies such as, the US,[400] the UK,[401] the European Commission,[402] Australia,[403] Netherlands[404] and Germany,[405] while said accusations were welcomed by Palestinians,[406] representatives from other states,[which?] and organizations such as the Arab League.[407] In 2022, Michael Lynk, a Canadian law professor appointed by the U.N. Human Rights Council said that the situation met the legal definition of apartheid, and concluded: "Israel has imposed upon Palestine an apartheid reality in a post-apartheid world".[408][409] Subsequent reports from his successor, Francesca Albanese and from Permanent United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Israel Palestine conflict chair Navi Pillay echoed the opinion.[410][411]

In February 2024, The ICJ held public hearings in regards to the legal consequences arising from the policies and practices of Israel in the occupied Palestinian territory including East Jerusalem. During the hearings, 24 States and three international organizations said that Israeli practices amount to a breach of the prohibition of apartheid and/or amount to prohibited acts of racial discrimination.[412]

Foreign relations
Main articles: Foreign relations of Israel and International recognition of Israel

  Diplomatic relations
  Diplomatic relations suspended
  Former diplomatic relations
  No diplomatic relations, but former trade relations
  No diplomatic relations
Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 165 UN member states, as well as with the Holy See, Kosovo, the Cook Islands and Niue. It has 107 diplomatic missions;[413] countries with whom they have no diplomatic relations include most Muslim countries.[414] Six out of twenty-two nations in the Arab League have normalized relations with Israel. Israel remains formally in a state of war with Syria, a status that dates back uninterrupted to 1948. It has been in a similarly formal state of war with Lebanon since the end of the Lebanese Civil War in 2000, with the Israel–Lebanon border remaining unagreed by treaty.

Despite the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, Israel is still widely considered an enemy country among Egyptians.[415] Iran withdrew its recognition of Israel during the Islamic Revolution.[416] Israeli citizens may not visit Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen without permission from the Ministry of the Interior.[417] As a result of the 2008–09 Gaza War, Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economic ties with Israel,[418] though Bolivia renewed ties in 2019.[419]

Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat at the signing ceremony of the Oslo Accords with then US President Bill Clinton
The United States and the Soviet Union were the first two countries to recognize the State of Israel, having declared recognition roughly simultaneously.[420] Diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were broken in 1967, following the Six-Day War, and renewed in October 1991.[421] The United States regards Israel as its "most reliable partner in the Middle East",[422] based on "common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests".[423] The US has provided $68 billion in military assistance and $32 billion in grants to Israel since 1967, under the Foreign Assistance Act (period beginning 1962),[424] more than any other country for that period until 2003.[424][425][426] Most surveyed Americans have also held consistently favorable views of Israel.[427][428] The United Kingdom is seen as having a "natural" relationship with Israel because of the Mandate for Palestine.[429] By 2007, Germany had paid 25 billion euros in reparations to the Israeli state and individual Israeli Holocaust survivors.[430] Israel is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy.[431]

Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,[432] Turkey has cooperated with the Jewish state since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey's ties to other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab and Muslim states to temper its relationship with Israel.[433] Relations between Turkey and Israel took a downturn after the 2008–09 Gaza War and Israel's raid of the Gaza flotilla.[434] Relations between Greece and Israel have improved since 1995 due to the decline of Israeli–Turkish relations.[435] The two countries have a defense cooperation agreement and in 2010, the Israeli Air Force hosted Greece's Hellenic Air Force in a joint exercise. The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on the Leviathan gas field are an important factor for Greece, given its strong links with Cyprus.[436] Cooperation in the world's longest submarine power cable, the EuroAsia Interconnector, has strengthened Cyprus–Israel relations.[437]

Azerbaijan is one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop strategic and economic relations with Israel.[336] Kazakhstan also has an economic and strategic partnership with Israel.[438] India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military, technological and cultural partnership with the country since then.[439] India is the largest customer of the Israeli military equipment and Israel is the second-largest military partner of India after Russia.[440] Ethiopia is Israel's main ally in Africa due to common political, religious and security interests.[441]

Foreign aid
Israel has a history of providing emergency foreign aid and humanitarian response to disasters across the world.[442] In 1955 Israel began its foreign aid programme in Burma. The programme's focus subsequently shifted to Africa.[443] Israel's humanitarian efforts officially began in 1957, with the establishment of Mashav, the Israel's Agency for International Development Cooperation.[444] In this early period, whilst Israel's aid represented only a small percentage of total aid to Africa, its programme was effective in creating goodwill; however, following the 1967 war relations soured.[445] Israel's foreign aid programme subsequently shifted its focus to Latin America.[443] Since the late 1970s Israel's foreign aid has gradually decreased, although in recent years Israel has tried to reestablish aid to Africa.[446] There are additional Israeli humanitarian and emergency response groups that work with the Israel government, including IsraAid, a joint programme run by Israeli organizations and North American Jewish groups,[447] ZAKA,[448] The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team,[449] Israeli Flying Aid,[450] Save a Child's Heart[451] and Latet.[452] Between 1985 and 2015, Israel sent 24 delegations of IDF search and rescue unit, the Home Front Command, to 22 countries.[453] Currently Israeli foreign aid ranks low among OECD nations, spending less than 0.1% of its GNI on development assistance.[454] The country ranked 38th in the 2018 World Giving Index.[455]

Military
Main articles: Israel Defense Forces and Israeli security forces
Further information: List of wars involving Israel, List of the Israel Defense Forces operations, and Israel and weapons of mass destruction

F-35 fighter jets of the Israeli Air Force
The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces and is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Cabinet. The IDF consists of the army, air force and navy. It was founded during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War by consolidating paramilitary organizations—chiefly the Haganah.[456] The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman).[457] The IDF have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.[458]

Most Israelis are conscripted at age 18. Men serve two years and eight months and women two years.[459] Following mandatory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and usually do up to several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Arab citizens of Israel (except the Druze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are exempt, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention.[460][461] An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a programme of service in social welfare frameworks.[462] A small minority of Israeli Arabs also volunteer in the army.[463] As a result of its conscription programme, the IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and 465,000 reservists, giving Israel one of the world's highest percentage of citizens with military training.[464]

Iron Dome is the world's first operational anti-artillery rocket defense system.
The military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. The Arrow missile is one of the world's few operational anti-ballistic missile systems.[465] The Python air-to-air missile series is often considered one of the most crucial weapons in its military history.[466] Israel's Spike missile is one of the most widely exported anti-tank guided missiles in the world.[467] Israel's Iron Dome anti-missile air defense system gained worldwide acclaim after intercepting hundreds of rockets fired by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip.[468][469] Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[470] The Ofeq programme has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.[471]

Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons[472] and per a 1993 report, chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction.[473][needs update] Israel has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons[474] and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities.[475] The Israeli Navy's Dolphin submarines are believed to be armed with nuclear missiles offering second-strike capability.[476] Since the Gulf War in 1991, all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room, Merkhav Mugan, impermeable to chemical and biological substances.[477]

Since Israel's establishment, military expenditure constituted a significant portion of the country's gross domestic product, with peak of 30.3% of GDP in 1975.[478] In 2021, Israel ranked 15th in the world by total military expenditure, with $24.3 billion, and 6th by defense spending as a percentage of GDP, with 5.2%.[479] Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor of military aid.[480] Under a memorandum of understanding signed in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8 billion per year, or around 20% of Israel's defense budget, from 2018 to 2028.[481] Israel ranked 9th globally for arms exports in 2022.[482] The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported for security reasons.[483] Israel is consistently rated low in the Global Peace Index, ranking 134th out of 163 nations in 2022.[484]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Israel

The Diamond Exchange District in Ramat Gan

Tel Aviv Stock Exchange
Israel is considered the most advanced country in Western Asia and the Middle East in economic and industrial development.[485][486] As of October 2023, the IMF estimated Israel's GDP at 521.7 billion dollars and Israel's GDP per capita at 53.2 thousand (ranking 13th worldwide).[487] It is the third richest country in Asia by nominal per capita income.[488] Israel has the highest average wealth per adult in the Middle East.[489]The Economist ranked Israel as the 4th most successful economy among the developed countries for 2022.[490] It has the most billionaires in the Middle East, and the 18th most in the world.[491] In recent years Israel had one of the highest growth rates in the developed world.[492] In 2010, it joined the OECD.[42][493] The country is ranked 20th in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report[494] and 35th on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business index.[495] Israel was also ranked 5th in the world by share of people in high-skilled employment.[496] Israeli economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.[349]

Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Imports to Israel, totaling $96.5 billion in 2020, include raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, and consumer goods.[295] Leading exports include machinery, equipment, software, cut diamonds, agricultural products, chemicals, textiles, and apparel; in 2020, Israeli exports reached $114 billion.[295] The Bank of Israel holds $201 billion of foreign-exchange reserves, the 17th highest in the world.[295] Since the 1970s, Israel has received military aid from the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form of loan guarantees, which account for roughly half of Israel's external debt. Israel has one of the lowest external debts in the developed world, and is a lender in terms of net external debt (assets vs. liabilities abroad), which in 2015 stood at a surplus of $69 billion.[497]

Israel has the second-largest number of startup companies after the United States,[498] and the third-largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies.[499] It is the world leader for number of start-ups per capita.[500] Israel has been dubbed the "Start-Up Nation".[501][502][503][504] Intel[505] and Microsoft[506] built their first overseas research and development facilities in Israel, and other high-tech multinational corporations have opened research and development centres in the country.

The days which are allocated to working times in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for a five-day workweek), or Friday (for a six-day workweek). In observance of Shabbat, in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day". Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world.[507]

Science and technology
Main articles: Science and technology in Israel and List of Israeli inventions and discoveries

Matam high-tech park in Haifa
Israel's development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley.[508][509] Israel is first in the world in expenditure on research and development as a percentage of GDP.[510] It is ranked 14th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023,[511] and fifth in the 2019 Bloomberg Innovation Index.[512] Israel has 140 scientists, technicians, and engineers per 10,000 employees, the highest number in the world.[513][514][515] Israel has produced six Nobel Prize-winning scientists since 2004[516] and has been frequently ranked as one of the countries with the highest ratios of scientific papers per capita.[517][518][519] Israeli universities are ranked among the top 50 world universities in computer science (Technion and Tel Aviv University), mathematics (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) and chemistry (Weizmann Institute of Science).[520]

In 2012, Israel was ranked ninth in the world by the Futron's Space Competitiveness Index.[521] The Israel Space Agency coordinates all Israeli space research programmes with scientific and commercial goals, and have designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites.[522] Some of Israel's satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems.[523] Shavit is a space launch vehicle produced by Israel to launch small satellites into low Earth orbit.[524] It was first launched in 1988, making Israel the eighth nation to have a space launch capability. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving on the fatal mission of Space Shuttle Columbia.[525]

The ongoing water shortage has spurred innovation in water conservation techniques, and a substantial agricultural modernization, drip irrigation, was invented in Israel. Israel is also at the technological forefront of desalination and water recycling. The Sorek desalination plant is the largest seawater reverse osmosis desalination facility in the world.[526] By 2014, Israel's desalination programmes provided roughly 35% of Israel's drinking water and it is expected to supply 70% by 2050.[527] As of 2015, over 50 percent of the water for Israeli households, agriculture and industry is artificially produced.[528] In 2011, Israel's water technology industry was worth around $2 billion a year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a net exporter of water.[529]

A horizontal parabolic dish, with a triangular structure on its top.
The world's largest solar parabolic dish at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy Center[530]
Israel has embraced solar energy; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology[531] and its solar companies work on projects around the world.[532][533] Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita.[317][534] According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating.[535] The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev Desert.[531][532][533] Israel had a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of charging stations.[536][537][538] However, Israel's electric car company Better Place shut down in 2013.[539]

Energy
Main article: Energy in Israel
Israel began producing natural gas from its own offshore gas fields in 2004. In 2009, a natural gas reserve, Tamar, was found near the coast of Israel. A second reserve, Leviathan, was discovered in 2010.[540] The natural gas reserves in these two fields could make Israel energy-secure for more than 50 years. In 2013, Israel began commercial production of natural gas from the Tamar field. As of 2014, Israel produced over 7.5 billion cubic meters (bcm) of natural gas a year.[541] Israel had 199 billion bcm of proven reserves of natural gas as of 2016.[542] The Leviathan gas field started production in 2019.[543]

Ketura Sun is Israel's first commercial solar field. Built in 2011 by the Arava Power Company, the field consists of 18,500 photovoltaic panels made by Suntech, which will produce about 9 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity per year.[544] In the next twenty years, the field will spare the production of some 125,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide.[545]

Transport
Main article: Transport in Israel

Ben Gurion International Airport
Israel has 19,224 kilometres (11,945 mi) of paved roads[546] and 3 million motor vehicles.[547] The number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons is 365, relatively low among developed countries.[547] The country aims to have 30% of vehicles on its roads powered by electricity by 2030.[548]

Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes,[549] operated by several carriers, the largest and oldest of which is Egged, serving most of the country.[550] Railways stretch across 1,277 kilometres (793 mi) and are operated by government-owned Israel Railways.[551] Following major investments beginning in the early to mid-1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5 million in 1990, to 53 million in 2015; railways transport 7.5 million tons of cargo per year.[551]

Israel is served by three international airports: Ben Gurion Airport, the country's main hub for international air travel; Ramon Airport; and Haifa Airport. Ben Gurion, Israel's largest airport, handled over 21.1 million passengers in 2023.[552] The country has three main ports: the Port of Haifa, the country's oldest and largest, on the Mediterranean coast, Ashdod Port; and the smaller Port of Eilat on the Red Sea.

Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Israel
See also: List of archaeological sites in Israel and Palestine

Ein Bokek resort on the shore of the Dead Sea
Tourism, especially religious tourism, is an important industry in Israel, with the country's beaches, archaeological, other historical and biblical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of tourists is on the rebound.[553] In 2017, a record 3.6 million tourists visited Israel, yielding a 25 percent growth since 2016 and contributed NIS 20 billion to the Israeli economy.[554][555][556][557]

Real estate
Main article: Housing in Israel
Housing prices in Israel are listed in the top third of all countries,[558] with an average of 150 salaries required to buy an apartment.[559] As of 2022, there are about 2.7 million properties in Israel, with an annual increase of over 50,000.[560] However, the demand for housing exceeds supply, with a shortage of about 200,000 apartments as of 2021.[561] As a result, by 2021 housing prices rose by 5.6%.[562] In 2021, Israelis took a record of NIS 116.1 billion in mortgages, an increase of 50% from 2020.[563]

Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Israel and Israelis

Immigration to Israel in the years 1948–2015. The two peaks were in 1949 and 1990.
Israel has the largest Jewish population in the world and is the only country where Jews are the majority.[564] As of 31 December 2022, Israel's population was an estimated 9,656,000. In 2022, the government recorded 73.6% of the population as Jews, 21.1% as Arabs, and 5.3% as "Others" (non-Arab Christians and people who have no religion listed).[12] Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa, and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally,[565] but estimates run from 166,000 to 203,000.[566] By June 2012, approximately 60,000 African migrants had entered Israel.[567] About 93% of Israelis live in urban areas.[568] 90% of Palestinian Israelis reside in 139 densely populated towns and villages concentrated in the Galilee, Triangle and Negev regions, with the remaining 10% in mixed cities and neighbourhoods.[569][570][571][572][573] The OECD in 2016 estimated the average life expectancy at 82.5 years, the 6th-highest in the world.[574] Israeli Arab life expectancy lags by 3 to 4 years[575][576] and is higher than in most Arab and Muslim countries.[577][578] Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.[579] Jewish emigration from Israel (called yerida), primarily to the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,[580] but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.[581][582]

Approximately 80% of Israeli Jews are born in Israel, 14% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 6% are immigrants from Asia and Africa.[583] Jews from Europe and the former Soviet Union and their descendants born in Israel, including Ashkenazi Jews, constitute approximately 44% of Jewish Israelis. Jews from Arab and Muslim countries and their descendants, including both Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews,[584] form most of the rest of the Jewish population.[585][586] Jewish intermarriage rates run at over 35% and recent studies suggest that the percentage of Israelis descended from both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews increases by 0.5 percent yearly, with over 25% of schoolchildren now originating from both.[587] Around 4% of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as "others", are Russian descendants of Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for citizenship under the Law of Return.[588][589][590]

The total number of Israeli settlers beyond the Green Line is over 600,000 (≈10% of the Jewish Israeli population).[591] In 2016, 399,300 Israelis lived in West Bank settlements,[340] including those that predated the establishment of the State of Israel and which were re-established after the Six-Day War, in cities such as Hebron and Gush Etzion bloc. Additionally there were more than 200,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem,[341] and 22,000 in the Golan Heights.[340] Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip, known as Gush Katif, until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.[592]

Israeli Arabs (including the Arab population of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights) comprise 21.1% of the population or 1,995,000 people.[593] In a 2017 poll, 40% of Arab citizens of Israel identified as "Arab in Israel" or "Arab citizen of Israel", 15% identified as "Palestinian", 8.9% as "Palestinian in Israel" or "Palestinian citizen of Israel", and 8.7% as "Arab"; a poll found that 60% of Israeli Arabs have a positive view of the state.[594][595]

Major urban areas
For a more comprehensive list, see List of cities in Israel.

View over the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area
Israel has four major metropolitan areas: Gush Dan (Tel Aviv metropolitan area; population 3,854,000), Jerusalem (population 1,253,900), Haifa (924,400), and Beersheba (377,100).[596]

Israel's largest municipality, in population and area, is Jerusalem with 981,711 residents in an area of 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi).[597] Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area of East Jerusalem, the status of which is in international dispute.[598] Tel Aviv and Haifa rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of 474,530 and 290,306, respectively.[597] The (mainly Haredi) city of Bnei Brak is the most densely populated city in Israel and one of the 10 most densely populated cities in the world.[599]

Israel has 16 cities with populations over 100,000. As of 2018 there are 77 Israeli localities granted "municipalities" (or "city") status by the Ministry of the Interior,[600] four of which are in the West Bank.[601]

 vte
Largest cities in Israel
Israel Central Bureau of Statistics[597]
Rank    Name    District    Municipal pop.    Rank    Name    District    Municipal pop.    
Jerusalem
Jerusalem
Tel Aviv
Tel Aviv    1    Jerusalem    Jerusalem    981,711a    11    Ramat Gan    Tel Aviv    172,486    Haifa
Haifa
Rishon LeZion
Rishon LeZion
2    Tel Aviv    Tel Aviv    474,530    12    Ashkelon    Southern    153,138
3    Haifa    Haifa    290,306    13    Rehovot    Central    150,748
4    Rishon LeZion    Central    260,453    14    Beit Shemesh    Jerusalem    154,694
5    Petah Tikva    Central    255,387    15    Bat Yam    Tel Aviv    128,465
6    Ashdod    Southern    226,827    16    Herzliya    Tel Aviv    106,741
7    Netanya    Central    233,104    17    Kfar Saba    Central    101,556
8    Bnei Brak    Tel Aviv    218,357    18    Hadera    Haifa    103,041
9    Beersheba    Southern    214,162    19    Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut    Central    99,171
10    Holon    Tel Aviv    197,957    20    Lod    Central    85,351
^a This number includes East Jerusalem and West Bank areas, which had a total population of 573,330 inhabitants in 2019.[602] Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem is internationally unrecognized.

Language
Main article: Languages of Israel

Road sign in Hebrew, Arabic, and English
Israel's official language is Hebrew. Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken daily by the majority of the population. Prior to 1948, opposition to Yiddish, the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews, was common among supporters of the Zionist movement, including the Yishuv, who sought to promote Hebrew's revival as a unifying national language.[603] These sentiments were reflected in the early policies of the Israeli government, which largely banned Yiddish theatre performances and publications.[604] Until 2018, Arabic was also an official language of Israel;[11] in 2018 it was downgraded to having a "special status in the state".[9][10] Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority, with Hebrew taught in Arab schools.

Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia (some 130,000 Ethiopian Jews live in Israel),[605][606] Russian and Amharic are widely spoken.[607] Over one million Russian-speaking immigrants arrived in Israel between 1990 and 2004.[608] French is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis,[609] mostly originating from France and North Africa (see Maghrebi Jews). English was an official language during the Mandate period; it lost this status after the establishment of Israel, but retains a role comparable to that of an official language.[610][611][612] Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programmes are broadcast in English with subtitles and the language is taught from the early grades in elementary school. Israeli universities offer courses in the English language on various subjects.[613][better source needed]

Religion
Main article: Religion in Israel
See also: Abrahamic religions
A large open area with people bounded by old stone walls. To the left is a mosque with large golden dome.
The Dome of the Rock and the Western Wall, Jerusalem
The religious affiliation of the Israeli population as of 2022 was 73.6% Jewish, 18.1% Muslim, 1.9% Christian, and 1.6% Druze. The remaining 4.8% included faiths such as Samaritanism and Baháʼí, as well as "religiously unclassified".[614]

The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: a 2016 survey by Pew Research indicates that 49% self-identify as Hiloni (secular), 29% as Masorti (traditional), 13% as Dati (religious) and 9% as Haredi (ultra-Orthodox).[615] Haredi Jews are expected to represent over 20% of Israel's Jewish population by 2028.[616]

Muslims constitute Israel's largest religious minority, making up about 17.6% of the population. About 2% of the population is Christian and 1.6% is Druze.[295] The Christian population comprises primarily Arab Christians and Aramean Christians, but also includes post-Soviet immigrants, foreign laborers, and followers of Messianic Judaism, considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.[617] Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[618] Out of over one million immigrants from the former Soviet Union, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel.[619]

Israel comprises a major part of the Holy Land, a region of significant importance to all Abrahamic religions. The city of Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims, and Christians, as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount (Al-Aqsa Mosque compound) and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[620] Other locations of religious importance are Nazareth (site of the Annunciation of Mary), Tiberias and Safed (two of the Four Holy Cities in Judaism), the White Mosque in Ramla (shrine of the prophet Saleh), and the Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr, Lod (tomb of Saint George or Al Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in the West Bank, including Joseph's Tomb, the birthplace of Jesus, Rachel's Tomb, and the Cave of the Patriarchs. The administrative center of the Baháʼí Faith and the Shrine of the Báb are located at the Baháʼí World Centre in Haifa; the leader of the faith is buried in Acre.[621][622][623] The Mahmood Mosque is affiliated with the reformist Ahmadiyya movement. Kababir, Haifa's mixed neighbourhood of Jews and Ahmadi Arabs, is one of a few of its kind in the country.[624][625]

Education
Main article: Education in Israel

Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center at Bar-Ilan University
Education is highly valued in the Israeli culture and was viewed as a fundamental block of ancient Israelites.[626] In 2015, the country ranked third among OECD members for the percentage of 25–64 year-olds that have attained tertiary education with 49% compared with the OECD average of 35%.[627] In 2012, the country ranked third in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).[628]

Israel has a school life expectancy of 16 years and a literacy rate of 97.8%.[295] The State Education Law (1953) established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[629] Education is compulsory for children between the ages of three and eighteen.[630] Schooling is divided into three tiers—primary school (grades 1–6), middle school (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12)—culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, the Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, the English language, history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[631]

Israel's Jewish population maintains a relatively high level of educational attainment where just under half of all Israeli Jews (46%) hold post-secondary degrees.[632][633] Israeli Jews (among those ages 25 and older) have average of 11.6 years of schooling making them one of the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the world.[634][635] In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage.[636] In 2020, 68.7% of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[637]

Mount Scopus Campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Israel has a tradition of higher education where its quality university education has been largely responsible in spurring the nation's modern economic development.[638] Israel has nine public universities subsidized by the state and 49 private colleges.[631][639][640] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem houses the National Library of Israel, the world's largest repository of Judaica and Hebraica.[641] The Technion and the Hebrew University consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities by ARWU ranking.[520] Other major universities include the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, and the Open University of Israel.

Culture
Main article: Culture of Israel
Israel's cultural diversity stems from its diverse population: Jews from various diaspora communities brought their cultural and religious traditions with them.[642] Arab influences are present in many cultural spheres,[643] such as architecture,[644] music,[645] and cuisine.[646] Israel is the only country where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays. The official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath.[647]

Literature
Main article: Israeli literature

Shmuel Yosef Agnon, laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature
Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the National Library of Israel. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[648] In 2016, 89 percent of the 7,300 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.[649]

In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs.[650] Leading Israeli poets include Yehuda Amichai, Nathan Alterman, Leah Goldberg, and Rachel Bluwstein.[651] Internationally famous contemporary Israeli novelists include Amos Oz, Etgar Keret and David Grossman.[652][653]

Music and dance
Main articles: Music of Israel and Dance in Israel
Several dozen musicians in formal dress, holding their instruments, behind a conductor
Israel Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Zubin Mehta
Israeli music includes Mizrahi and Sephardic music, Hasidic melodies, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock.[654][655] The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra[656][657] has been in operation for over seventy years and performs more than two hundred concerts each year.[658] Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman and Ofra Haza are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel. Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition four times and hosting it twice.[659][660] Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987.[661] The nation's canonical folk songs are known as "Songs of the Land of Israel".[662]

Cinema and theatre
Main article: Cinema of Israel
Ten Israeli films have been final nominees for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards. Palestinian Israeli filmmakers have made films dealing with the Arab-Israeli conflict and status of Palestinians within Israel, such as Mohammed Bakri's 2002 film Jenin, Jenin and The Syrian Bride.

Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theatre in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.[663] Other theatres include Ohel, the Cameri and Gesher.[664][665]

Arts
Main article: Visual arts in Israel
Israeli Jewish art has been particularly influenced by the Kabbalah, the Talmud and the Zohar. Another art movement that held a prominent role in the 20th century was the School of Paris. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the Yishuv's art was dominated by art trends emanating Bezalel. Beginning in the 1920s, the local art scene was heavily influenced by modern French art, first introduced by Isaac Frenkel Frenel.[666][667] Jewish masters of the school of Paris, such as Soutine, Kikoine, Frenkel, Chagall heavily influenced the subsequent development of Israeli art.[668][669] Israeli sculpture took inspiration from modern European sculpture as well Mesopotamian, Assyrian and local art.[670][671] Avraham Melnikov's roaring lion, David Polus' Alexander Zaid and Ze'ev Ben Zvi's cubist sculpture exemplify some of the different streams in Israeli sculpture.[670][672][673]

Common themes in Israeli art are the mystical cities of Safed and Jerusalem, the bohemian café culture of Tel Aviv, agricultural landscapes, biblical stories and war. Today Israeli art has delved into Optical art, AI art, digital art and the use of salt in sculpture.[669]

Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Israel

Bauhaus Museum, Tel Aviv
Due to the immigration of Jewish architects, architecture in Israel has come to reflect different styles. In the early 20th century Jewish architects sought to combine Occidental and Oriental architecture producing buildings that showcase a myriad of infused styles.[674] The eclectic style gave way to the modernist Bauhaus style with the influx of German Jewish architects (among them Erich Mendelsohn) fleeing Nazi persecution.[675][676] The White City of Tel Aviv is a UNESCO heritage site.[677] Following independence, multiple government projects were commissioned, a grand part built in a brutalist style with heavy emphasis on the use of concrete and acclimatization to the Israel's desert climate.[678][679]

Several novel ideas such as the Garden City were implemented Israeli cities; the Geddes plan of Tel Aviv became renowned internationally for its revolutionary design and adaptation to the local climate.[680] The design of kibbutzim also came to reflect ideology, such as the planning of the circular kibbutz Nahalal by Richard Kauffmann.[681]

Media
Main article: Media of Israel
In the 2024 Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, Israel was placed 101st of 180 countries, second in the Middle East and North Africa region behind Qatar.[682][683] Reporters Without Borders noted that the Israel Defense Forces had killed more than 100 journalists in Gaza and that since the start of the Israel–Gaza war, Israel had been "been trying to suppress the reporting coming out of the besieged enclave while disinformation infiltrates its own media ecosystem."[683] On 5 May 2024, Israel shut down the local offices of Al Jazeera; later that month, Israel briefly seized equipment belonging to the Associated Press, prompting an intervention from the U.S. government.[684]

Museums
For a more comprehensive list, see List of Israeli museums.

Shrine of the Book, repository of the Dead Sea Scrolls in Jerusalem
The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions[685] and houses the Dead Sea Scrolls,[686] along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art.[685] Israel's national Holocaust museum, Yad Vashem, is the world central archive of Holocaust-related information.[687] ANU - Museum of the Jewish People on the campus of Tel Aviv University, is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.[688]

Israel has the highest number of museums per capita.[689] Several Israeli museums are devoted to Islamic culture, including the Rockefeller Museum and the L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art, both in Jerusalem. The Rockefeller specializes in archaeological remains from Middle East history. It is also the home of the first hominid fossil skull found in Western Asia, called Galilee Man.[690]

Cuisine
Main article: Israeli cuisine

A meal including falafel, hummus, French fries and Israeli salad
Israeli cuisine includes local dishes as well as Jewish cuisine brought to the country by immigrants. Particularly since the late 1970s, an Israeli fusion cuisine has developed.[691] Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of the Mizrahi, Sephardi, and Ashkenazi styles of cooking. It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in the Levantine, Arab, Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines, such as falafel, hummus, shakshouka, couscous, and za'atar. Schnitzel, pizza, hamburgers, French fries, rice and salad are common in Israel.

Roughly half of the Israeli-Jewish population attests to keeping kosher at home.[692][693] Kosher restaurants make up around a quarter of the total as of 2015.[691] Together with non-kosher fish, rabbits and ostriches, pork—often called "white meat" in Israel[694]—is produced and consumed, though it is forbidden by both Judaism and Islam.[695]

Sports
Main article: Sport in Israel

Maccabi Haifa F.C. fans at Sammy Ofer Stadium in the city of Haifa
The most popular spectator sports in Israel are association football and basketball.[696] The Israeli Premier League is the country's premier football league, and the Israeli Basketball Premier League is the premier basketball league.[697] Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are the largest football clubs. Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in the UEFA Champions League and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the UEFA Cup quarter-finals. Israel hosted and won the 1964 AFC Asian Cup; in 1970 the Israel national football team qualified for the FIFA World Cup, the only time it participated in the World Cup. The 1974 Asian Games, held in Tehran, were the last Asian Games in which Israel participated, plagued by Arab countries that refused to compete with Israel. Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games and since then has not competed in Asian sport events.[698] In 1994, UEFA agreed to admit Israel, and its football teams now compete in Europe. Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball six times.[699]

Israel has won nine Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics.[700] Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games and is ranked 20th in the all-time medal count. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel.[701] The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish and Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. Krav Maga, a martial art developed by Jewish ghetto defenders during the struggle against fascism in Europe, is used by the Israeli security forces and police.[702]

Chess is a leading sport in Israel. There are many Israeli grandmasters and Israeli chess players have won a number of youth world championships.[703] Israel stages an annual international championship and hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005.

See also
Index of Israel-related articles
Outline of Israel
References
Notes
 Recognition by other UN member states: Russia (West Jerusalem),[1] the Czech Republic (West Jerusalem),[2] Honduras,[3] Guatemala,[4] Nauru,[5] and the United States.[6]
 Jerusalem is Israel's largest city if including East Jerusalem, which is widely recognized as occupied territory.[7] If East Jerusalem is not counted, the largest city would be Tel Aviv.
 Arabic has a "special status" as set by the Basic Law of 2018, which allows it to be used by official institutions.[9][10] Prior to that law's passage, Arabic had been an official language alongside Hebrew.[11]
 Israeli population and economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.[349][350]
 The personal name "Israel" appears much earlier, in material from Ebla.[63]
 /ˈɪzri.əl, -reɪ-/; Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל Yīsrāʾēl [jisʁaˈʔel]; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيل ʾIsrāʾīl
 Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl [mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel]; Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل Dawlat Isrāʾīl
 The Jerusalem Law states that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel" and the city serves as the seat of the government, home to the President's residence, government offices, supreme court, and parliament. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (20 August 1980; 14–0, U.S. abstaining) declared the Jerusalem Law "null and void" and called on member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from Jerusalem.[23] See Status of Jerusalem for more information.
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 Meir-Glitzenstein, Esther (Fall 2018). "Turning Points in the Historiography of Jewish Immigration from Arab Countries to Israel". Israel Studies. 23 (3). Indiana University Press: 114–122. doi:10.2979/israelstudies.23.3.15. JSTOR 10.2979/israelstudies.23.3.15. S2CID 150208821. The mass immigration from Arab countries began in mid-1949 and included three communities that relocated to Israel almost in their entirety: 31,000 Jews from Libya, 50,000 from Yemen, and 125,000 from Iraq. Additional immigrants arrived from Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Iran, India, and elsewhere. Within three years, the Jewish population of Israel doubled. The ethnic composition of the population shifted as well, as immigrants from Muslim counties and their offspring now comprised one third of the Jewish population—an unprecedented phenomenon in global immigration history. From 1952–60, Israel regulated and restricted immigration from Muslim countries with a selective immigration policy based on economic criteria, and sent these immigrants, most of whom were North African, to peripheral Israeli settlements. The selective immigration policy ended in 1961 when, following an agreement between Israel and Morocco, about 100,000 Jews immigrated to the State. From 1952–68 about 600,000 Jews arrived in Israel, three quarters of whom were from Arab countries and the remaining immigrants were largely from Eastern Europe. Today fewer than 30,000 remain in Muslim countries, mostly concentrated in Iran and Turkey.
 Fischbach 2008, p. 26–27.
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 Dever, William G. Beyond the Texts, Society of Biblical Literature Press, 2017, pp. 89–93
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 Thomas L. Thompson, Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources, Brill, 2000 pp. 275–276: 'They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.'
 Hasel, Michael G. (1 January 1994). "Israel in the Merneptah Stela". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 296 (296): 45–61. doi:10.2307/1357179. JSTOR 1357179. S2CID 164052192.
* Bertman, Stephen (14 July 2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1.
* Meindert Dijkstra (2010). "Origins of Israel between history and ideology". In Becking, Bob; Grabbe, Lester (eds.). Between Evidence and Ideology Essays on the History of Ancient Israel read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln, July 2009. Brill. p. 47. ISBN 978-90-04-18737-5. As a West Semitic personal name it existed long before it became a tribal or a geographical name. This is not without significance, though is it rarely mentioned. We learn of a maryanu named ysr"il (*Yi¡sr—a"ilu) from Ugarit living in the same period, but the name was already used a thousand years before in Ebla. The word Israel originated as a West Semitic personal name. One of the many names that developed into the name of the ancestor of a clan, of a tribe and finally of a people and a nation.
 Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-664-22727-2.
 Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-21262-9.
 Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
 Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5
 Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel. Sheffield Academic Press Ltd. pp. 28, 31. ISBN 978-1-85075-657-6.
 Steiner, Richard C. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), The Semitic Languages, Routledge, pp. 145–173, ISBN 978-0-415-05767-7
 Killebrew 2005, p. 230.
 Shahin 2005, p. 6.
 Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-3-927120-37-2. After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
 Faust 2015, p. 476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt.."
 Redmount 2001, p. 61: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative."
 Dever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-3-927120-37-2. After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
 Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The History of Israel in the Biblical Period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-997846-5. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
 Kuhrt, Amiele (1995). The Ancient Near East. Routledge. p. 438. ISBN 978-0-415-16762-8.
 Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.
 Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). "David, King of Judah (Not Israel)". The Bible and Interpretation. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
 Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem", in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: "...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."
 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995 Archived 9 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."
 Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 146–7: Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power.
 Finkelstein, Israel (2013). The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel. pp. 65–66, 73, 78, 87–94. ISBN 978-1-58983-911-3. OCLC 880456140.
 Finkelstein, Israel (1 November 2011). "Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria". Tel Aviv. 38 (2): 194–207. doi:10.1179/033443511x13099584885303. ISSN 0334-4355. S2CID 128814117.
 Israel., Finkelstein. The forgotten kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58983-910-6. OCLC 949151323.
 Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
 Broshi, M., & Finkelstein, I. (1992). "The Population of Palestine in Iron Age II" Archived 5 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 287(1), 47–60.
 Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 307: "Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied."
 Lipschits, Oded (1999). "The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule". Tel Aviv. 26 (2): 155–190. doi:10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155. ISSN 0334-4355.
 Wheeler, P. (2017). "Review of the book Song of Exile: The Enduring Mystery of Psalm 137, by David W. Stowe". The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. 79 (4): 696–697. doi:10.1353/cbq.2017.0092. S2CID 171830838.
 "Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule". Biu.ac.il. Archived from the original on 16 January 1999. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
 Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103
 Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
 Helyer, Larry R.; McDonald, Lee Martin (2013). "The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era". In Green, Joel B.; McDonald, Lee Martin (eds.). The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts. Baker Academic. pp. 45–47. ISBN 978-0-8010-9861-1. OCLC 961153992. The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty... Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus') primary accomplishment was annexing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains
 Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6. The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain... The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus... it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border... and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there.
 Ben-Eliyahu, Eyal (30 April 2019). Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity. Univ of California Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-520-29360-1. OCLC 1103519319. From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus's prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan.
 Schwartz, Seth (2014). The ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-1-107-04127-1. OCLC 863044259. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024. The year 70 ce marked transformations in demography, politics, Jewish civic status, Palestinian and more general Jewish economic and social structures, Jewish religious life beyond the sacrificial cult, and even Roman politics and the topography of the city of Rome itself. [...] The Revolt's failure had, to begin with, a demographic impact on the Jews of Palestine; many died in battle and as a result of siege conditions, not only in Jerusalem. [...] As indicated above, the figures for captives are conceivably more reliable. If 97,000 is roughly correct as a total for the war, it would mean that a huge percentage of the population was removed from the country, or at the very least displaced from their homes. Nevertheless, only sixty years later, there was a large enough population in the Judaean countryside to stage a massively disruptive second rebellion; this one appears to have ended, in 135, with devastation and depopulation of the district.
 Werner Eck, "Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen", Novum Testamentum 55 (2013): 1–21
 Raviv, Dvir; Ben David, Chaim (2021). "Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 34 (2): 585–607. doi:10.1017/S1047759421000271. ISSN 1047-7594. S2CID 245512193. Scholars have long doubted the historical accuracy of Cassius Dio's account of the consequences of the Bar Kokhba War (Roman History 69.14). According to this text, considered the most reliable literary source for the Second Jewish Revolt, the war encompassed all of Judea: the Romans destroyed 985 villages and 50 fortresses, and killed 580,000 rebels. This article reassesses Cassius Dio's figures by drawing on new evidence from excavations and surveys in Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. Three research methods are combined: an ethno-archaeological comparison with the settlement picture in the Ottoman Period, comparison with similar settlement studies in the Galilee, and an evaluation of settled sites from the Middle Roman Period (70–136 CE). The study demonstrates the potential contribution of the archaeological record to this issue and supports the view of Cassius Dio's demographic data as a reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation.
 Mor, Menahem (18 April 2016). The Second Jewish Revolt. BRILL. pp. 483–484. doi:10.1163/9789004314634. ISBN 978-90-04-31463-4. Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the sikarikon laws were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.
 Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.
 H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6, page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."
 Ariel Lewin. The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6
 Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History. 4:6.3-4
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 Lehmann, Clayton Miles (18 January 2007). "Palestine". Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 7 April 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
 Judaism in late antiquity, Jacob Neusner, Bertold Spuler, Hady R Idris, Brill, 2001, p. 155
 The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World by Catherine Nixey 2018
 הר, משה דוד (2022). "היהודים בארץ-ישראל בימי האימפריה הרומית הנוצרית" [The Jews in the Land of Israel in the Days of the Christian Roman Empire]. ארץ-ישראל בשלהי העת העתיקה: מבואות ומחקרים [Eretz Israel in Late Antiquity: Introductions and Studies] (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. ירושלים: יד יצחק בן-צבי. pp. 210–212. ISBN 978-965-217-444-4.
 Ehrlich, Michael (2022). The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800. Arc Humanities Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-1-64189-222-3. OCLC 1302180905. The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.
 David Goodblatt (2006). "The Political and Social History of the Jewish Community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Steven Katz (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. IV. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Few would disagree that, in the century and a half before our period begins, the Jewish population of Judah () suffered a serious blow from which it never recovered. The destruction of the Jewish metropolis of Jerusalem and its environs and the eventual refounding of the city... had lasting repercussions. [...] However, in other parts of Palestine the Jewish population remained strong [...] What does seem clear is a different kind of change. Immigration of Christians and the conversion of pagans, Samaritans and Jews eventually produced a Christian majority
 Bar, Doron (2003). "The Christianisation of Rural Palestine during Late Antiquity". The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 54 (3): 401–421. doi:10.1017/s0022046903007309. ISSN 0022-0469. The dominant view of the history of Palestine during the Byzantine period links the early phases of the consecration of the land during the fourth century and the substantial external financial investment that accompanied the building of churches on holy sites on the one hand with the Christianisation of the population on the other. Churches were erected primarily at the holy sites, 12 while at the same time Palestine's position and unique status as the Christian 'Holy Land' became more firmly rooted. All this, coupled with immigration and conversion, allegedly meant that the Christianisation of Palestine took place much more rapidly than that of other areas of the Roman empire, brought in its wake the annihilation of the pagan cults and meant that by the middle of the fifth century there was a clear Christian majority.
 Kohen, Elli (2007). History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire. University Press of America. pp. 26–31. ISBN 978-0-7618-3623-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
 "Roman Palestine". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
 לוי-רובין, מילכה; Levy-Rubin, Milka (2006). "The Influence of the Muslim Conquest on the Settlement Pattern of Palestine during the Early Muslim Period / הכיבוש כמעצב מפת היישוב של ארץ-ישראל בתקופה המוסלמית הקדומה". Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה (121): 53–78. ISSN 0334-4657. JSTOR 23407269.
 Ellenblum, Ronnie (2010). Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-58534-0. OCLC 958547332. From the data given above it can be concluded that the Muslim population of Central Samaria, during the early Muslim period, was not an autochthonous population which had converted to Christianity. They arrived there either by way of migration or as a result of a process of sedentarization of the nomads who had filled the vacuum created by the departing Samaritans at the end of the Byzantine period [...] To sum up: in the only rural region in Palestine in which, according to all the written and archeological sources, the process of Islamization was completed already in the twelfth century, there occurred events consistent with the model propounded by Levtzion and Vryonis: the region was abandoned by its original sedentary population and the vacuum was apparently filled by nomads who, at a later stage, gradually became sedentarized
 Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
 Broshi, Magen (1979). "The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 236 (236): 1–10. doi:10.2307/1356664. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1356664. S2CID 24341643.
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 Kramer, Gudrun (2008). A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel. Princeton University Press. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-691-11897-0.
 Joel Rappel, History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), vol. 2, p. 531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned...."
 D. Tamar, "On the Jews of Safed in the Days of the Ottoman Conquest" Cathedra 11 (1979), cited Dan Ben Amos, Dov Noy (eds.),Folktales of the Jews, V. 3 (Tales from Arab Lands), Jewish Publication Society 2011 p.61, n.3: Tamar . .challenges David's conclusion concerning the severity of the riots against the Jews, arguing that the support of the Egyptian Jews saved the community of Safed from destruction'.
 The Solomon Goldman lectures. Spertus College of Judaica Press. 1999. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-935982-57-2. The Turks' conquest of the city in 1517, was marked by a violent pogrom of murder, rape, and plunder of Jewish homes. The surviving Jews fled to the "land of Beirut", not to return until 1533.
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 H. Inalcik; The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600, Phoenix Press, (2001)
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 L. Stavrianos; The Balkans since 1453, NYU Press (2000)
 Rosenzweig 1997, p. 1. "Zionism, the urge of the Jewish people to return to Palestine, is almost as ancient as the Jewish diaspora itself. Some Talmudic statements ... Almost a millennium later, the poet and philosopher Yehuda Halevi ... In the 19th century ..."
 Eisen, Yosef (2004). Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present. Targum Press. p. 700. ISBN 978-1-56871-323-6.
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 Stein 2003, p. 88. "As with the First Aliyah, most Second Aliyah migrants were non-Zionist orthodox Jews ..."
 Moris, Beni (2001). Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 (1. Vintage Books ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780679744757. Many of these newcomers possessed a mixture of socialist and nationalist values, and they eventually succeeded in setting up a separate Jewish economy, based wholly on Jewish labor.
 Romano 2003, p. 30.
 Moris, Beni (2001). Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 (1. Vintage Books ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780679744757. Another major cause of antagonism was the labor controversy. The hard core of Second Aliyah socialists, who were to become the Yishuv's leaders in the 1920s and 1930s, believed that the settler economy must not depend on or exploit Arab labor... But, in reality, rather than "meshing," the nationalist ethos had simply overpowered and driven out the socialist ethos... There were other reasons for the "conquest of labor." The socialists of the Second Aliyah used the term to denote three things: overcoming the Jews' traditional remove from agricultural labor and helping them transform into the "new Jews"; struggling against employers for better conditions; and replacing Arabs with Jews in manual jobs.
 Gelvin, James (2014) [2002]. The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War (3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85289-0. Archived from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
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 Scharfstein 1996, p. 269. "During the First and Second Aliyot, there were many Arab attacks against Jewish settlements ... In 1920, Hashomer was disbanded and Haganah ("The Defense") was established."
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 Levenberg, Haim (1993). Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine: 1945–1948. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-3439-5, pp. 74–76
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 The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First | By Paul J. Smith | M.E. Sharpe, 2007 | p. 27
 Encyclopedia of Terrorism, Harvey W. Kushner, Sage, 2003 p. 181
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 Imseis 2021, pp. 13–14: 'As to territorial boundaries, under the plan the Jewish State was allotted approximately 57 percent of the total area of Palestine even though the Jewish population comprised only 33 percent of the country. In addition, according to British records relied upon by the ad hoc committee, the Jewish population possessed registered ownership of only 5.6 percent of Palestine, and was eclipsed by the Arabs in land ownership in every one of Palestine's 16 sub-districts. Moreover, the quality of the land granted to the proposed Jewish state was highly skewed in its favour. UNSCOP reported that under its majority plan "[t]he Jews will have the more economically developed part of the country embracing practically the whole of the citrus-producing area"—Palestine's staple export crop—even though approximately half of the citrus-bearing land was owned by the Arabs. In addition, according to updated British records submitted to the ad hoc committee's two sub-committees, "of the irrigated, cultivable areas" of the country, 84 per cent would be in the Jewish State and 16 per cent would be in the Arab State".'
 Morris 2008, p. 75: "The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv's settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community."
 Morris 2008, p. 396: "The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal."
 Matthews, John: Israel-Palestine land division Archived 5 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
 Imseis 2021, pp. 14–15: 'Although the Zionists had coveted the whole of Palestine, the Jewish Agency leadership pragmatically, if grudgingly, accepted Resolution 181(II). Although they were of the view that the Jewish national home promised in the Mandate was equivalent to a Jewish state, they well understood that such a claim could not be maintained under prevailing international law..Based on its own terms, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that the partition plan privileged European interests over those of Palestine's indigenous people and, as such, was an embodiment of the Eurocentricity of the international system that was allegedly a thing of the past. For this reason, the Arabs took a more principled position in line with prevailing international law, rejecting partition outright . .This rejection has disingenuously been presented in some of the literature as indicative of political intransigence,69 and even hostility towards the Jews as Jews'
 Morris 2008, p. 66: at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews.", p. 67: at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression," "without mercy." The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition.", p. 72: at December 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.""
 Bregman 2002, pp. 40–41.
 Gelber, Yoav (2006). Palestine 1948. Sussex Academic Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-902210-67-4.
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 Henry Laurens (2007). La Question de Palestine. Vol. 3. Paris: Fayard. p. 104. L'entrée en guerre des pays arabes pose un problem juridique complexe. Le franchissement des frontières peut constituer un acte d'aggression ou une menace contre la paix, justifiant une condannation et une intervention des Nations unies, mais si les armées pénètrent seulement dans la partie arabe du plan de partage, elles peuvent être considérées comme appelées par la population et à ce stade leur intervention ne serait pas par elle-même une menace contre la paix. Elle ne commencerait qu'avec l'attaque de la partie juive. Or, en certains points, les armées arabes menacent directement le territoire juif et dans d'autres les Juifs se sont déjà largement installés en territoire arabe. [The entry into (the) war of the Arab countries poses a complex legal problem. The crossing of the borders can constitute an act of aggression or a threat against peace, justifying a condemnation and an intervention by the United Nations, but if the armies penetrate only the Arab part of the partition plan, they can be considered as called on (to do so) by the population and at this stage their intervention would not in itself be a threat against the peace. That would only start were the Jewish part attacked. Now, the Arab armies do directly threaten Jewish territory at certain points while in others the Jews have already largely taken up positions in Arab territory.]
 Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-84176-372-9.
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 Morris 2008, p. 205.
 Rabinovich, Itamar; Reinharz, Jehuda (2007). Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present. Brandeis. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4.
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 Morris 2008, p. 187: "A week before the armies marched, Azzam told Kirkbride: "It does not matter how many [Jews] there are. We will sweep them into the sea." ... Ahmed Shukeiry, one of Haj Amin al-Husseini's aides (and, later, the founding chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization), simply described the aim as "the elimination of the Jewish state." ... al-Quwwatli told his people: "Our army has entered ... we shall win and we shall eradicate Zionism""
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 Clive Jones, Emma Murphy, Israel: Challenges to Identity, Democracy, and the State, Routledge 2002 p. 37: "Housing units earmarked for the Oriental Jews were often reallocated to European Jewish immigrants; Consigning Oriental Jews to the privations of ma'aborot (transit camps) for longer periods."
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 Kameel B. Nasr (1996). Arab and Israeli Terrorism: The Causes and Effects of Political Violence, 1936–1993. McFarland. pp. 40–. ISBN 978-0-7864-3105-2. Fedayeen to attack...almost always against civilians
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* Anderson, Perry (July–August 2001). "Editorial: Scurrying Towards Bethlehem". New Left Review. 10. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2015. longest official military occupation of modern history—currently entering its thirty-fifth year
* Makdisi, Saree (2010). Palestine Inside Out: An Everyday Occupation. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-33844-7. longest-lasting military occupation of the modern age
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Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 978-1-56656-557-8.
Shindler, Colin (2002). The Land Beyond Promise: Israel, Likud and the Zionist Dream. I.B.Tauris Publishers. ISBN 978-1-86064-774-1.
Shlay, Anne B.; Rosen, Gillad (December 2010). "Making Place: The Shifting Green Line and the Development of "Greater" Metropolitan Jerusalem". City & Community. 9 (4): 358–389. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6040.2010.01344.x. ISSN 1535-6841.
Smith, Derek (2006). Deterring America: Rogue States and the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86465-7.
Stein, Leslie (2003). The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-275-97141-0.
Stendel, Ori (1997). The Arabs in Israel. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-898723-23-3.
Stone, Russell A.; Zenner, Walter P. (1994). Critical Essays on Israeli Social Issues and Scholarship. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1959-5.
Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32091-0.
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